MORFOLOGI FISIO TUMBUHAN

Circumscriptio = penggolongan daun berdasarkan letak bagian yang terlebar :
1. terlebar di tengah helaian daun :
- bulat / bundar, contoh : teratai besar / Nelumbium nelumbo.
- bangun perisai (bulat, tangkai tertanam pada tengah helaian).
- jorong / oval / elip (2:1), misal : nangka / Artocarpus integra.
- memanjang (3:1), contoh : srikaya / Annona squamosa.
- bangun lancet (5:1), example : daun kamboja / Plumiera acuminata.
2. terlebar di bawah tengah helaian daun :
Pangkal daun tidak bertoreh / tidak berlekuk :
- bulat telur, misal : daun kembang sepatu / Hibiscus rosa-sinensis.
- segitiga (sama kaki), contoh : daun bunga pukul empat / Mirabilis jalapa.
- delta (sama sisi).
- belah ketupat.
Pangkal daun bertoreh / berlekuk :
- jantung, misal : daun waru / Hibiscus tiliaceus.
- ginjal.
- anak panah.
- tombak.
- bertelinga.
3. terlebar di atas tengah-tengah helaian daun :
- bulat telur sungsang, contoh : daun sawo kecik / Manilkara kauki.
- jantung sungsang, misal : semanggi gunung / Oxalis corniculata.
- segitiga terbalik / pasak.
- sudip (seperti bulat telur terbalik tapi bawah memanjang.
4. tidak ada yang terlebar / sama lebar :
- garis, example : daun rumput / Gramineae sp.
- pita (lebih panjang), misal : daun jagung / Zea mays.
- pedang (daun tebal di tengah), contoh : daun nenas seberang / Agave sisalana.
- paku.
- jarum.

Tepi daun.

1. rata.

2. bertoreh / berlekuk :

toreh merdeka (toreh tidak seberapa dalam) :

- bergerigi (sinus dan angulus sama lancip).

- bergerigi ganda / rangkap (angulus cukup besar dan tepi bergerigi lagi).

- bergigi (sinus tumpul, angulus lancip).

- beringgit (kebalikan bergigi), example : cocor bebek / Kalanchoe pinnata.

- berombak (sinus dan angulus tumpul).

toreh tidak merdeka :

- berlekuk menyirip (berlekuk = dalamnya toreh kurang dari setengah tulang di kanan kiri, menyirip = mirip sirip ikan.

- bercangap menyirip (bercangap = dalamnya toreh sama dengan setengah tulang di kanan kiri, misal : keluwih / Artocarpus communis.

- berbagi menyirip (berbagi = toreh lebih dari setengah tulang di kanan kiri).

- berlekuk menjari (menjari = seperti jari tangan, jumlah ganjil, ditengah paling besar dan panjang).

- bercangap menjari.

- berbagi menjari, contoh : ketela pohon / Manihot utilissima.

Basis / pangkal daun :

1. runcing.

2. meruncing.

3. tumpul.

4. membulat.

5. rompang / rata.

6. berlekuk.

Rumus Bunga.

Urutannya tetap, berlambang huruf, angka dan dibatasi dengan koma :

1. jenis kelamin (jantan / benang sari, betina / putik, banci).

2. simetri (banyak atau satu).

3. Kelopak / K / kalix.

4. mahkota / C / corolla.

5. benang sari / A / alat jantan / androecium.

6. putik / alat betina / G / gynaecium / daun buah.

Bisa juga cuma ada :

Tenda bunga / P / perigonium.

Bila tersusun lebih dari lingkaran, diberi tanda "+".

Jika berlekatan satu sama lain, ditaruh dalam kurung.

Jika berlekatan dua bagian bunga, ditaruh dalam kurung besar.

Untuk bakal buah yang menumpang, di bawah angka digaris.

Untuk bakal buah yang tenggelam, di atas angka digaris.

BUAH.

Buah buni = buah yang dindingnya mempunyai dua lapisan, yaitu lapisan luar yang tipis agak menjangat atau kaku seperti kulit (belulang) dan lapisan dalam yang tebal, lunak dan berair, biji-bijinya terdapat bebas dalam bagian yang lunak itu, misal : pepaya / Carica papaya, duku / Lansium domesticum.

Tipe-tipe sel xilem sekunder :

A. sistem aksial :

1. unsur-unsur trakea yaitu trakeid dan komponen trakea.

2. serat yaitu serat trakeid dan serat libriform.

3. sel-sel parenkim.

B. sistem radial / jari-jari empulur.

1. sel parenkim jari-jari empulur.

FARMASI FISIKA

Sebuah Fluida Newtonian (dinamakan dari Isaac Newton) didefinisikan sebagai fluida yang tegangan gesernya berbanding lurus secara linier dengan gradien kecepatan pada arah tegak lurus dengan bidang geser. Definisi ini memiliki arti bahwa fluida newtonian akan mengalir terus tanpa dipengaruhi gaya-gaya yang bekerja pada fluida. Sebagai contoh, air adalah fluida Newtonian karena air memiliki properti fluida sekalipun pada keadaan diaduk.
Cairan plastik --> bila ditambahkan energi akan menjadi encer.
Dilatant --> bila diberi energi, misalnya dikocok akan mengental. Umumnya tidak berlaku untuk sediaan farmasi.
Tixotropik --> suatu sediaan yang bila dikocok akan encer dan bila didiamkan akan kental.
SURFAKTAN (Surface Active Agent).
Surfaktan merupakan senyawa organik yang dalam molekulnya memiliki sedikitnya satu gugus hidrofilik dan satu gugus hidrofobik. Apabila ditambahkan ke suatu cairan pada konsentrasi rendah, maka dapat mengubah karakteristik tegangan permukaan dan antarmuka cairan tersebut.
Surfaktan adalah senyawa yang molekul-molekulnya mempunyai dua ujung yang berbeda interaksinya dengan air, yakni ujung satu (biasa disebut kepala) yang suka air dan ujung satunya (yang disebut ekor) yang tidak suka air.
Surfaktan adalah zat yang dapat membuat / mengaktifkan permukaan zat cair sehingga disebut zat yang dapat menurunkan tegangan permukaan.
Berbagai definisi surfaktan diatas pada dasarnya adalah sama yaitu dapat menurunkan tegangan permukaan.
Mengapa dikatakan dapat menurunkan tegangan permukaan?
Permukaan cairan dalam suatu wadah akan terjadi tarik menarik antara :
air - air --> gaya kohesi arah ke bawah,
air - gelas --> gaya adesi, di tengah, diabaikan dan
air - udara --> gaya adesi arah ke atas.
Kohesi air - air lebih besar daripada adesi air - udara, sehingga permukaan cairan cekung.
Untuk mengimbangi gaya tersebut timbullah tegangan permukaan.
Bila ditambahkan surfaktan, maka :
kohesi antara gugus polar / hydrophil surfaktan dengan air (K p s - air) --> arah ke bawah, dan
adesi antara gugus non polar / lipophyl surfaktan dengan udara (A non p s - udara)--> arah ke atas.
Ternyata A non p s - udara lebih besar daripada K p s - air, sehingga surfaktan dikatakan dapat menurunkan tegangan permukaan.
Surfaktan sebagai Anti busa.
Busa harus dicegah dalam sediaan farmasi terutama emulsi karena dalam industri secara pabrikasi, pengisian botol melalui mesin. Pada mesin pengisi ada ukuran tinggi cairan dalam botol sebagai alat kontrol.
Busa / sabun / detergen akan terjadi misel : sabun, air dan udara.
Jika sabun dalam jumlah sedikit, berfungsi sebagai pembasah tapi jika sabun dalam jumlah berlebih akan terjadi busa.
Pecahnya lapisan film dapat dipercepat dengan penambahan surfaktan.
Aplikasi Hidrophyl Lipophyl Balance (HLB) surfaktan dalam pengobatan dipakai untuk melarutkan Cholesterol, Trigliserida dan Asam Urat di dalam darah pada tubuh manusia.
Trigliserida sebagai gugus non polar, kadar normal dalam darah adalah kurang dari 150 mg/dl.
Cholesterol berasal dari karbohidrat yang telah disintesa oleh tubuh dan protein, kadar normal dalam darah adalah kurang dari 200 mg/dl.
Asam urat kadar normal dalam darah adalah kurang dari 7 mg/dl.
Harga normal tersebut diatas tidak mengikat tergantung kit insert / reagent yang dipakai.

The stage of a medicine analgesic

The stage of a medicine analgesic :
1. morphine derivate
2. diazepam derivate
3. mefenamate acid
4. natrium diklofenak
5. paracetamol
6. antalgin
7. aspirin

Natural dye

Natural dye, as we knew, many crop kinds and the animal that had beautiful and sparkling colours.
The use of the pigment that came from the crop and this animal has for a long time been carried out by our predecessors, for example the pandanus leaves, the leaves embroidered, turmeric et cetera.
Chlorophyll was the natural pigment green that generally is met to the leaves, so as often was acknowledged as the chlorophyll pigment.
This pigment often was asosiationed with the freshness of vegetables or did not yet cook to the fruit.
Gotten by 2 chlorophyll kinds that succeeded in being isolated that is chlorophyll A and chlorophyll B.
Both of them were met to the crop with the comparison 3 :1.
Chlorophyll A including in the pigment that was mentioned porfirin; haemoglobin also including inside. Clorophil a contained the atom Mg that was tied with N from 2 rings pirol with the covalent association as well as by two N atoms from two rings other pirol via the association of the co-ordinate; that is N from pirol that contributed his electron couple in Mg.
In the process of the processing of food, the most general change happened was the replacement of the magnesium atom with the hydrogen atom that formed feofitin was marked by the change in the colour from green became brown olive that was gloomy.
Mioglobin and haemoglobin were the red pigment to meat that was compiled by protein globin and heme that had the core took the form of iron.
Heme was the compound that consisted of two parts that is the iron atom and a ring plana that was big that is porfirin.
Porfirin was compiled by four rings pirol that was connected one in an other manner with meten bridge.
Heme was also mentioned feroprotoporfirin.
Both haemoglobin and mioglobin had the function that was similar that is functioning in transfor oxygen for the need of metabolism.
Karotenoid was the coloured pigment group yellow, oranye, red oranye that was most protracted in lipida (oil), came from the animal and the crop, for example fukoxanthin that was met in moss, lutein, violaxanthin, and neoxanthin was gotten to the foliage, likopen to tomatoes, kapsanthin to the red chilli, biksin in annatto, caroten to carrots, and astazanthin to the lobster.
Anthosianin and anthoxanthin was classified as the pigment that was mentioned flavonoid that generally protracted in water.
Anthosianin was compiled by one aglikon that take the form of anthosianidin that teresterifikasi with the sugar molecule that could one or more.
Sugar that often was found was glucose, ramnosa, galaktosa, xilosa and arabinosa.
Anthosianin that contained one sugar molecule was mentioned monosida, two sugars were mentioned diosida and three sugars were mentioned triosida.
Gotten by six kinds anthosianidin that often was met in the wild, that was important for food that is pelargonidin, sianidin, delfinidin, peonidin, petunidin and malvinidin.
All anthosianidin was derivative from the structure of the foundation kation flavilium.
To the molecule flavilium happened subsitusi with the molecule OH and Ome to form anthosianidin.
The colour of the pigment anthosianin red, blue, violet and usually was gotten to the flower, the fruit and vegetables.
The colour of the pigment was influenced by the concentration of the pigment, and pH. Pada the watery concentration anthosianin was blue, conversely in the thick concentration was red and the normal concentration was purple.
In the low pH the pigment anthosianin was red and in the high pH changed became violet and afterwards became blue.

Food colouring

The determination of the quality of the foodstuff generally really depends on several factors among them the taste, the colour of the texture and the nutritive value.
But before these factors was considered in a fisual manner the colour factor appeared beforehand and occasionally was critical.
Apart from as the factor that was decisive the quality, the colour could be also used as the indicator of the freshness or the maturity.
The colour also could show whether some mixing or the processing has been carried out with good or not yet.
FDA defined additional dye as dye, the pigment or the other material that was made by means of synthetic or chemical or the natural material from the crop, the animal or the other source that was extracted, was isolationed, that when being added or used to the foodstuff, medicine or cosmetics, could become part of the colour of this material.
Five because that could cause a material to be coloured that is:
1.Pigmen that naturally was met to the animal and the crop.
2.Reaction caramelisasion that produced the colour of chocolate.
3.Reaction Maillard that could produce the unclear colour.
4.Reaction oxidation.
5.addition the good pigment the natural pigment (the pigment) and synthetic.
In the processing of modern food, colouring matters were often added with the aim of improving the colour from the foodstuff or to reinforce the original colour from this foodstuff material.
In this Chapter discussions were about the pigment restricted only for the natural pigment (the pigment) and the synthetic pigment that including the group of the food additive.