Enjoy with Pharmacy

UDARA DAN PENCEMAR

2009-02-28T05:08:00.000-08:00

Efek biologi pencemar terhadap kesehatan dapat menimbulkan :
 Fibrosis
 Granuloma
 Asphyxia
 Kanker
 Mutan
 Keracunan sistemik
 Iritasi
 Demam.

Prinsip-prinsip pengelolaan kualitas udara, sesuai UU no.4 thn 1982 :
 Baku mutu kualitas udara ambien  udara yg mengandung unsur2 melebihi standar disebut tercemar.
 Baku mutu udara emisi (standar emisi cerobong asap pabrik dan kendaraan bermotor).

Asphyxia adalah keadaan dimana darah kekurangan oksigen dan tidak mampu melepas karbondioksida, penyebabnya gas-gas beracun dalam atmosfir seperti CO2, H2S, CO, NH3 dan CH4.

ANTELMINTIK

2009-02-20T07:35:00.000-08:00

Antelmintik : obat untuk memberantas / mengurangi cacing dalam usus / jaringan.
1.Dietikarbamazin : menyebabkan paralisis mikrofilaria menjadi hancur, cepat diabsorpsi usus, exkresi lewat urin.
2.Levamisol : dosis tunggal untuk Ascaris dan Trichostrongylus, efektif sedang untuk Ancylostoma duodenale, efektif rendah untuk Necator americanus.
3.mebendazol : mengobati cacing gelang, cacing kremi, cacing tambang, Trichuris trichiura, cacing pita dan Strongyloides stercolarlis.
4.niklosamid : untuk cacing pita (Cestoda), E. granulosus dan Enterobius vermikularis.
5.niridazol : efektif untuk Schistosoma haematobium dan Schistosoma Mansoni. Kontraindikasi pada hati, ginjal dan darah.
6.piperazin : efektif terhadap Ascaris lumbricoides dan E. vermicularis. Merupakan obat cacing yang pertama kali.
7.pirantel pamoat : untuk cacing gelang, cacing kremi dan cacing tambang.
8.pirazikuantel : efektif terhadap Cestoda dan Trematoda, contoh : Schistosoma mansoni dan Schistosoma japonicum.
9.tiabendazol : efektif terhadap strongyloidiasis, askariasis, oksiuriasis dan larva migrans kulit.
Cacing khasnya menempel di dinding usus.

KEMOTERAPI TREMATODA

2009-02-20T06:48:00.000-08:00

Trematoda / cacing pipih, diantaranya :
1. Skistosomiasis / cacing pipih darah.
Penyebabnya Schistosoma hematobium, Schistosoma japonicum, Schistosoma mansoni, obat : prazikuantel.

2. Cacing pipih usus.
Penyebabnya Fasciolopsis buski, obat : prazikuantel.

3. Cacing pipih hati.
a. Clonorchis sinensis, obat : prazikuantel.
b. Fasciola hepatica, obat : bitionol, pilihan ke-2 : triklabendazol.

4. Cacing pipih paru-paru (paragonimiasis).
Penyebabnya Paragonimus spp., obat : prazikuantel.

KEMOTERAPI CESTODA

2009-02-20T06:33:00.001-08:00

Cestoda / cacing pita, diantaranya :
1. Taeniasis.
Penyebabnya :
a. Taenia saginata (cacing pita sapi), obat : prazikuantel, pilihan ke-2 : niklosamida.
b. Taenia solium (cacing pita babi), obat : prazikuantel.

2. Neurosistiserkosis, disebabkan Taenia solium, obat : albendazol.

3. Diphyllobothrium latum (cacing pita ikan), obat : prazikuantel, pilihan ke-2 : niklosamida.

4. Himenolepiasis.
Penyebabnya Hymenolepis nana (cacing pita kerdil), obat : prazikuantel.

5. Ekinokokosis.
Penyebabnya Echinococcus granulosus, obat : albendazol, pilihan ke-2 : mebendazol.

KEMOTERAPI PROTOZOA

2009-02-20T05:37:00.000-08:00

PROTOZOA Adalah hewan bersel satu.
1. Penyakit amebiasis, penyebab diantaranya adalah :
a. Entamoeba histolytica
Infeksi ringan : obatnya Diloksanid furoat, pilihan ke-2 : Iodokuinol / paromomisin.
Infeksi sedang-parah : obatnya metronidazol + diloksanid furoat, pilihan ke-2 : paromomisin + diloksanid furoat.
Amebiasis sistemik : obatnya metronidazol + diloksanid furoat, pilihan ke-2 : klorokuin + diloksanid furoat.
Bentuk klinis :
Amebiasis intestinal (usus, kolon). Kolon akut / disentri (diare dengan tinja berlendir dan berdarah).
Amebiasis ekstra-intestinal, secara : hematogen (melalui aliran darah), per kontinuitatum (secara langsung).
Diagnosis :
Amebiasis kolon akut : mules, diare < 10x sehari. Pd disentri basilaris : > 10x sehari, demam, leukositosis.
Amebiasis kolon menahun : diare diselingi obstipasi. Bila ameba tidak ditemukan, pemeriksaan tinja perlu diulangi 3 hari berturut-turut.
Amebiasis hati : berat badan menurun, lemah, demam, tidak nafsu makan, pembesaran hati yang nyeri tekan, leukositosis.

2. Balantidiasis.
Oleh Balantidium coli, obat : tetrasiklin, iodokuinol / metronidazol.

3. Giardiasis.
Penyebabnya Giardia lamblia, obat : metronidazol, paromomisin (aman selama kehamilan).

4. Leismaniasis, obat : natrium stiboglukonat.
5. Malaria, obat :
a. kloroquin : efektif untuk Plasmodium vivax dan Plasmodium falciparum, gamet Plasmodium vivax. Kontraindikasi : penyakit hepar. Aman untuk wanita hamil dan anak < 1 tahun.
b. pirimetamin : kombinasi pirimetamin dengan sulfonamid dan kuinin untuk plasmodia yang resisten terhadap kloroquin. Ditimbun dalam ginjal, paru, hati dan limpa.
c. primakuin : untuk penyembuhan radikal malaria vivax dan ovale. Efek gametosidal pada 4 jenis plasmodium. Efek samping : anemi hemolitik akut dengan defisiensi enzim G6PD. Kontraindikasi : artritis reumatoid dan lupus eritomatosus. Mencegah resisten, primakuin diberikan bersama skizontosid 4-aminokuinolin dalam dosis penuh.
d. kuinin : efek samping nyeri lambung, mual dan muntah. Kina + pirimetamin + sulfonamid untuk Plasmodium falciparum yang resisten terhadap kloroquin. Berefek skizontosid dan gametosid terhadap Plasmodium vivax dan Plasmodium malariae.
e. proguanil : berefek skizontosid. Aman untuk wanita hamil dan anak < 1 thn.
f. meflokuin : pada Plasmodium falciparum strain resisten di daerah endemik dan Plasmodium vivax.
g. halopantrin : Plasmodium falciparum yang resisten pada obat lain.
h. tetrasiklin : tetrasiklin dan oksitetrasiklin untuk Plasmodium falciparum yang resisten terhadap klorokuin maupun kombinasi pirimetamin sulfadoksin.
i. artemisin : untuk Plasmodium falciparum.
Terapi malaria, tergantung :
a.Geografi daerah kontak (dg galur resisten thd kloroquin atau bukan).
b.Adanya btk eksoeritrosit (P. vivax & P. ovale).
c.Adanya kehamilan.
d.Adanya intoleransi thd obat.

6. Toksoplasmosis.
Penyebabnya Toxoplasma gondii, obat : pirimetamin + sulfadiazine, pilihan ke-2 : spriramisin.

7. Trikomoniasis.
Penyebabnya Trichomonas vaginalis, obat : metronidazol, pilihan ke-2 : tinidazol.

8. Tripanosomiasis.
di Amerika Selatan dengan obat : Nifurtimoks, pilihan ke-2 : benzonidazol.
di Afrika (penyakit tidur), tahap awal obat : suramin, pilihan ke-2 : pentamidin isetionat, tahap lanjut (menyerang SSP) obat : melarsoprol, pilhan ke-2 : eflornitin.

VIRGIN COCONUT OIL

2009-02-11T06:45:00.000-08:00

Virgin Coconut Oil atau trigliserida palmitat atau low chain (kurang dari C7) dihasilkan dari minyak kelapa yang dipanaskan dengan temperatur rendah atau dengan mikroba yang akan menghasilkan warna putih. Minyak ini mengandung trigliserida.
Hasil akhir proses trigliserida diantaranya adalah gliserin yang bisa digunakan sebagai pelembab, bisa didapatkan juga dengan pembelian gliserin p.a (pro analisis) 100%.
Jika kita meminum VCO maka jika dalam darah diperiksa maka akan didapatkan kadar trigliserida yang tinggi.
Kadar trigliserida yang normal adalah kurang dari 150 mg/dl, tergantung dari kit insert reagent yang digunakan.
Obat untuk melarutkan lemak dalam darah ini mahal dan perlu waktu setidaknya satu bulan dalam meminumnya dengan teratur supaya kadarnya turun.
Untuk periksa lemak dalam darah di laboratorium klinik, sebaiknya puasa dulu minimal 12 jam. Paket pemeriksaan lemak dalam darah yang diperiksa adalah cholesterol, HDL, LDL dan trigliserida.
Rumus cholesterol C27H46O.

REAKSI

2009-02-09T16:28:00.000-08:00

Cara membedakan antara reaksi kimia dan reaksi fisika dengan mudah adalah bahwa reaksi kimia susah untuk diproses bolak balik, perlu perlakuan khusus atau penambahan zat lain lagi. Misalnya reaksi penambahan asam dan basa, dll.
Kalau reaksi fisika mudah direaksikan bolak balik. Contohnya adalah proses mendidih, penguapan, sublimasi, dll. Proses sabun dalam air bisa melarutkan kotoran termasuk reaksi fisika.
Larutan tembakau bisa dipakai untuk tambahan dalam air pembilasan saat mencuci supaya membilasnya hanya perlu satu kali saja. Tembakau bisa didapat dari rokok. Ada produk pelembut yang sedang booming dengan iklannya "sekali bilas", dan larutan tembakau bisa dipakai sebagai alternatif.
Pewangi cucian bisa dipakai parfum yang awet yaitu parfum arab, bisa bertahan sampai satu tahun, jadi bukan cuma 7 hari.
Pohon yang harum, contohnya adalah pada gaharu dan cendana. Batang pohon gaharu setelah busuk akan menyebabkan bau harum, yang lebih harum daripada cendana. Bahkan dipakai sebagai pepatah. Pepatahnya adalah "sudah gaharu cendana pula" yang berarti sudah tahu bertanya pula.

SIRIH MERAH

2009-02-08T15:34:00.000-08:00

Sirih merah (nama latin : Piper crocatum) termasuk dalam famili Piperaceae, tumbuh merambat dengan bentuk daun menyerupai hati dan bertangkai, yang tumbuh berselang-seling dari batangnya serta penampakan daun yang berwarna merah keperakan dan mengkilap. Dalam daun sirih merah terkandung senyawa fitokimia yakni alkoloid, saponin, tanin dan flavonoid. Bisa dipakai sebagai obat diabetes mellitus atau kencing manis atau penyakit gula. Setelah diproses dan dimasukkan dalam kapsul, zat berkhasiat ini bersifat higroskopis atau menyerap air, hal ini kadang dianggap konsumen sebagai obat yang rusak.
Gejala Diabetes mellitus ditandai dengan poli uri atau banyak kencing, poli pagie atau banyak makan dan poli dipsi atau banyak minum. Berat badan turun drastis. Penyebabnya bisa karena keturunan atau kebiasaan pola makan yang salah. Untuk mengetahui adanya penyakit tersebut adalah dengan pemeriksaan screening secara kualitatif dan atau semi kuantitatif pada urin di laboratorium klinik. Bila hasilnya positif maka dilanjutkan dengan pemeriksaan secara kuantitatif dalam darah, yang secara umum sering dijadikan barometer adalah pemeriksaan gula darah puasa dan dua jam setelah makan. Kadang bisa juga periksa gula darah sewaktu atau random, karena masing-masing pemeriksaan mempunyai range nilai normal sendiri-sendiri.
Kadar gula darah puasa yang normal adalah 70 - 110 mg/dl.
Kadar gula darah dua jam setelah makan normalnya kurang dari 140 mg/dl.
Kadar gula darah sewaktu atau acak atau random normalnya kurang dari 180 mg/dl.
Nilai normal tergantung pada kit insert reagent yang digunakan.
Untuk memantau pengobatan bisa dengan periksa kadar HbA1c.
Yang ditakutkan pada penyakit ini adalah jika luka yang tidak bisa sembuh bahkan sampai harus diamputasi, juga bisa menyebabkan komplikasi penyakit yang lain.

SIRKULASI DARAH

2009-02-03T05:34:00.000-08:00

Darah bagusnya bersirkulasi dengan teratur dan berganti yang baru secara periodik, seperti wanita mengalami menstruasi tiap bulan untuk membuang darah kotor sehingga darah akan memproduksi baru lagi. Hal ini akan membuat wanita lebih sehat. Wanita mengalami menstruasi pertama kali pada umur 12 - 14 tahun. Haid berlangsung 3 - 8 hari. Siklus haid pada wanita 28 - 32 hari. Jika tidak mendapat menstruasi sesuai jadwal, maka diindikasikan bahwa wanita tersebut hamil, atau bisa jadi terkena penyakit kandungan, bisa juga disebabkan karena stress. Masa subur wanita sekitar hari ke-14 setelah haid pertama. Saat mendapat haid, wanita dilarang melakukan hubungan intim karena sangat beresiko menularkan penyakit. Dalam Islam, saat wanita haid, tidak diperbolehkan sholat dan puasa, setelah haid selesai dan benar-benar bersih diharuskan untuk mandi besar / bersuci dan baru dibolehkan untuk sholat dan puasa kembali. Pada wanita yang pernah melakukan hubungan intim, disarankan untuk periksa pap-smear tiap enam bulan sekali supaya bisa mendeteksi penyakit kandungan dan kanker sejak dini sehingga diharapkan tidak terlambat dalam penanganan terapi dan pengobatannya.
Untuk pria karena tidak mengalami menstruasi maka cara supaya darah bisa memproduksi baru, disarankan untuk mendonorkan darahnya tiap tiga bulan sekali. Disamping membuat badan sehat dan segar, juga bisa menolong orang lain yang sedang membutuhkan darah seperti ibu yang melahirkan, orang yang dioperasi ataupun tentara korban perang. Sebelum donor, biasanya diperiksa dulu kadar hemoglobin, berat badan dan tekanan darahnya. Orang yang pernah terkena hepatitis dan malaria tidak boleh donor. Jika normal semua dan berat badan diatas 45 kg maka baru bisa mendonorkan darahnya. Darah selanjutnya diperiksa apakah ada penyakit hepatitis dan HIVnya, jika tidak ada maka baru disimpan. Ada yang disimpan dalam bentuk darah lengkap, ada juga yang dipisah dan diambil trombositnya saja atau eritrositnya saja. Jika orang butuh darah, diperiksa dulu apakah golongan darah dan rhesusnya sama antara donor dan resipien, jika sama baru bisa didonorkan.

KHASIAT DAUN SUKUN

2009-02-02T06:08:00.000-08:00

Daun sukun (dengan nama latin : Artocarpus communis folium, bercirikan tepi daunnya berbagi menyirip) bisa digunakan sebagai obat untuk menurunkan kadar creatinin dalam darah manusia.
Contoh resep : daun sukun kering 25 gram ditambah air 6 gelas, direbus dalam panci tanah, disaring, minum sehari 3x1 gelas.
Kadar creatinin yang normal adalah 0.6 - 1.2 mg/dl. Kadar yang di bawah normal, bisa diasumsikan telah terjadi pengendapan dan hal ini termasuk penyakit juga. Kadar kreatinin bisa diperiksa di laboratorium klinik dengan cara diambil darah vena sekitar 3 cc. Tarifnya sekitar Rp 20.000,- dan bisa ditunggu.
Kadar kreatinin merupakan suatu pemeriksaan yang bisa menjadi indikator pada fungsi ginjal. Pemeriksaan fungsi ginjal yang lain adalah ureum, asam urat / uric acid dan CCT / Clearance Creatinin Test. Pemeriksaan skreeningnya / pemeriksaan kualitatif adalah pemeriksaan urin rutin atau urin lengkap, lebih murah dan hasil lebih cepat didapatkan. Kalau pemeriksaan dari darah adalah pemeriksaan lanjutan atau pemeriksaan secara kuantitatif.

DOSEN FARMASI

2009-02-02T04:02:00.000-08:00

Dosen kesayangan kami, DR. Badruzzaman, Dipl, DEA, Apt berencana akan berhenti mengajar di kampus kami pada semester mendatang karena mendapat protes dari keluarganya dimana katanya waktu untuk keluarga menjadi hilang disebabkan kesibukan beliau mengajar. Sebenarnya kami merasa sedih dengan keputusan beliau ini dan semoga ada perubahan dalam rencana tersebut. Beliau baik dan mau membagi ilmu apa saja dengan mahasiswa / mahasiswinya. Beliau sering menceritakan pengalaman di Perancis sewaktu belajar untuk menempuh gelar Doktor, bahasa Perancis, tentang sistem Pharmacist di Perancis dan kekonyolan sewaktu hidup di Perancis. Mengapa dosen yang baik-baik yang berhenti mengajar kami? Setelah sebelumnya dosen kami bapak Apip, Apt, Msi juga berhenti mengajar. Mudah-mudahan selanjutnya kami akan mendapat dosen pengganti yang lebih baik. Amin. Mudah-mudahan walaupun Bapak Badruz dan bapak Apip sudah tidak mengajar kami, hubungan silaturahmi tetap terjaga dan kami pun masih dibolehkan untuk bertanya sewaktu-waktu jika ada kesulitan dalam belajar.

PATIENT ORIENTED

2009-02-02T03:42:00.000-08:00

Perubahan dari drug oriented menjadi patient oriented termasuk dalam pharmaceutical care, dimana mencakup delapan kata kunci, yaitu :
1. Practise --> one patient on time (satu dokter satu farmasis).
2. patient focused.
3. interaksi dengan pasien.
4. terapi obat harus rasional yaitu tepat, efektif dan aman serta nyaman dengan biaya yang murah.
5. memperbaiki quality of life :
- kesehatan lingkungan.
- kesadaran akan kebersihan.
- mengatur menu sehat.
- obat.
6. definite outcome.
7. terdokumentasi.
8. solved the drug related problem.

FARMASI KOMUNITAS

2009-01-31T04:35:00.000-08:00

Tuntutan pelayanan kefarmasian terkini berada dalam 3 matra profesi yaitu :

1. Farmasi Klinik merupakan layanan jasa profesi berorientasi (berpihak) kepada kepentingan keselamatan pasien,

2. Farmasi Industri merupakan layanan jasa profesi berorientasi kepada penyediaan produk farmasi yang memenuhi standar : Safety – Efficacy – Quality dan

3. Farmasi Sosial yang menjamin perlindungan masyarakat dari penggunaan salah dan penyalahgunaan obat, kosmetik, makanan, dan produk lainnya. Dengan demikian dapat diprediksi bahwa perkembangan kefarmasian kedepan menjadi lebih terintegrasi dalam pelayanan kesehatan. Perubahan-perubahan ini telah terjadi di beberapa negara maju seperti Australia, Inggris dan Amerika Serikat.

Paradigma drug oriented menjadi patient oriented adalah suatu jalan pembuka bagaimana seorang farmasis berperan sebagaimana mestinya, bahwa seorang farmasis bukan aktor dibalik layar, pasif dan bertugas meracik dan memproduksi obat saja, tetapi farmasis masa kini terlibat secara langsung dan bertanggung jawab terhadap pengobatan pasien. Farmasis di masa datang terlibat dalam mengidentifikasi dan memecahkan drug related problem (Pharmaceutical Care).

Jadi sekarang bukan hanya berorientasi obat saja dan beralih kepada mutu pelayanan. Tapi yang lebih penting lagi adalah menjaga keselamatan dan kesembuhan pasien secara konsisten dan terus menerus.

no pharmacist no service artinya apoteker selalu standby di apoteknya dengan memberi pelayanan farmasi yang baik tentunya.
Bisa jadi farmasis akan tidak mendapat imbalan yang layak atas ilmunya, mengingat standar gaji di Indonesia.

Jika kemudian Pharmacist berwenang untuk prescribing seperti di Inggris, berarti perlu peningkatan ilmu pengetahuan dan dilakukan secara berkala seperti mengenai farmakodinamik dan farmakokinetik juga tentang obat-obatan untuk dokter spesialis.

Ilmu pengetahuan buat Apoteker yang disertai penjelasan informasi tentang obat :

1. tentang stabilitas obat dan zat penambah yang lain.

2. prinsip tentang sediaan obat.

3. dosis obat.

4. Obat Tak Tercampurkan secara fisika, kimia, dan efek therapeutik.

5. metode packaging yang digunakan.

6. prosedur labelling.

7. segala sesuatu yang berhubungan dengan penyimpanan, permintaan, pengiriman sampai obat dikonsumsi oleh pasien.

MORFOLOGI FISIO TUMBUHAN

2009-01-31T02:13:00.000-08:00

Circumscriptio = penggolongan daun berdasarkan letak bagian yang terlebar :
1. terlebar di tengah helaian daun :
- bulat / bundar, contoh : teratai besar / Nelumbium nelumbo.
- bangun perisai (bulat, tangkai tertanam pada tengah helaian).
- jorong / oval / elip (2:1), misal : nangka / Artocarpus integra.
- memanjang (3:1), contoh : srikaya / Annona squamosa.
- bangun lancet (5:1), example : daun kamboja / Plumiera acuminata.
2. terlebar di bawah tengah helaian daun :
Pangkal daun tidak bertoreh / tidak berlekuk :
- bulat telur, misal : daun kembang sepatu / Hibiscus rosa-sinensis.
- segitiga (sama kaki), contoh : daun bunga pukul empat / Mirabilis jalapa.
- delta (sama sisi).
- belah ketupat.
Pangkal daun bertoreh / berlekuk :
- jantung, misal : daun waru / Hibiscus tiliaceus.
- ginjal.
- anak panah.
- tombak.
- bertelinga.
3. terlebar di atas tengah-tengah helaian daun :
- bulat telur sungsang, contoh : daun sawo kecik / Manilkara kauki.
- jantung sungsang, misal : semanggi gunung / Oxalis corniculata.
- segitiga terbalik / pasak.
- sudip (seperti bulat telur terbalik tapi bawah memanjang.
4. tidak ada yang terlebar / sama lebar :
- garis, example : daun rumput / Gramineae sp.
- pita (lebih panjang), misal : daun jagung / Zea mays.
- pedang (daun tebal di tengah), contoh : daun nenas seberang / Agave sisalana.
- paku.
- jarum.

Tepi daun.

1. rata.

2. bertoreh / berlekuk :

toreh merdeka (toreh tidak seberapa dalam) :

- bergerigi (sinus dan angulus sama lancip).

- bergerigi ganda / rangkap (angulus cukup besar dan tepi bergerigi lagi).

- bergigi (sinus tumpul, angulus lancip).

- beringgit (kebalikan bergigi), example : cocor bebek / Kalanchoe pinnata.

- berombak (sinus dan angulus tumpul).

toreh tidak merdeka :

- berlekuk menyirip (berlekuk = dalamnya toreh kurang dari setengah tulang di kanan kiri, menyirip = mirip sirip ikan.

- bercangap menyirip (bercangap = dalamnya toreh sama dengan setengah tulang di kanan kiri, misal : keluwih / Artocarpus communis.

- berbagi menyirip (berbagi = toreh lebih dari setengah tulang di kanan kiri).

- berlekuk menjari (menjari = seperti jari tangan, jumlah ganjil, ditengah paling besar dan panjang).

- bercangap menjari.

- berbagi menjari, contoh : ketela pohon / Manihot utilissima.

Basis / pangkal daun :

1. runcing.

2. meruncing.

3. tumpul.

4. membulat.

5. rompang / rata.

6. berlekuk.

Rumus Bunga.

Urutannya tetap, berlambang huruf, angka dan dibatasi dengan koma :

1. jenis kelamin (jantan / benang sari, betina / putik, banci).

2. simetri (banyak atau satu).

3. Kelopak / K / kalix.

4. mahkota / C / corolla.

5. benang sari / A / alat jantan / androecium.

6. putik / alat betina / G / gynaecium / daun buah.

Bisa juga cuma ada :

Tenda bunga / P / perigonium.

Bila tersusun lebih dari lingkaran, diberi tanda "+".

Jika berlekatan satu sama lain, ditaruh dalam kurung.

Jika berlekatan dua bagian bunga, ditaruh dalam kurung besar.

Untuk bakal buah yang menumpang, di bawah angka digaris.

Untuk bakal buah yang tenggelam, di atas angka digaris.

BUAH.

Buah buni = buah yang dindingnya mempunyai dua lapisan, yaitu lapisan luar yang tipis agak menjangat atau kaku seperti kulit (belulang) dan lapisan dalam yang tebal, lunak dan berair, biji-bijinya terdapat bebas dalam bagian yang lunak itu, misal : pepaya / Carica papaya, duku / Lansium domesticum.

Tipe-tipe sel xilem sekunder :

A. sistem aksial :

1. unsur-unsur trakea yaitu trakeid dan komponen trakea.

2. serat yaitu serat trakeid dan serat libriform.

3. sel-sel parenkim.

B. sistem radial / jari-jari empulur.

1. sel parenkim jari-jari empulur.

FARMASI FISIKA

2009-01-31T00:59:00.000-08:00

Sebuah Fluida Newtonian (dinamakan dari Isaac Newton) didefinisikan sebagai fluida yang tegangan gesernya berbanding lurus secara linier dengan gradien kecepatan pada arah tegak lurus dengan bidang geser. Definisi ini memiliki arti bahwa fluida newtonian akan mengalir terus tanpa dipengaruhi gaya-gaya yang bekerja pada fluida. Sebagai contoh, air adalah fluida Newtonian karena air memiliki properti fluida sekalipun pada keadaan diaduk.
Cairan plastik --> bila ditambahkan energi akan menjadi encer.
Dilatant --> bila diberi energi, misalnya dikocok akan mengental. Umumnya tidak berlaku untuk sediaan farmasi.
Tixotropik --> suatu sediaan yang bila dikocok akan encer dan bila didiamkan akan kental.
SURFAKTAN (Surface Active Agent).
Surfaktan merupakan senyawa organik yang dalam molekulnya memiliki sedikitnya satu gugus hidrofilik dan satu gugus hidrofobik. Apabila ditambahkan ke suatu cairan pada konsentrasi rendah, maka dapat mengubah karakteristik tegangan permukaan dan antarmuka cairan tersebut.
Surfaktan adalah senyawa yang molekul-molekulnya mempunyai dua ujung yang berbeda interaksinya dengan air, yakni ujung satu (biasa disebut kepala) yang suka air dan ujung satunya (yang disebut ekor) yang tidak suka air.
Surfaktan adalah zat yang dapat membuat / mengaktifkan permukaan zat cair sehingga disebut zat yang dapat menurunkan tegangan permukaan.
Berbagai definisi surfaktan diatas pada dasarnya adalah sama yaitu dapat menurunkan tegangan permukaan.
Mengapa dikatakan dapat menurunkan tegangan permukaan?
Permukaan cairan dalam suatu wadah akan terjadi tarik menarik antara :
air - air --> gaya kohesi arah ke bawah,
air - gelas --> gaya adesi, di tengah, diabaikan dan
air - udara --> gaya adesi arah ke atas.
Kohesi air - air lebih besar daripada adesi air - udara, sehingga permukaan cairan cekung.
Untuk mengimbangi gaya tersebut timbullah tegangan permukaan.
Bila ditambahkan surfaktan, maka :
kohesi antara gugus polar / hydrophil surfaktan dengan air (K p s - air) --> arah ke bawah, dan
adesi antara gugus non polar / lipophyl surfaktan dengan udara (A non p s - udara)--> arah ke atas.
Ternyata A non p s - udara lebih besar daripada K p s - air, sehingga surfaktan dikatakan dapat menurunkan tegangan permukaan.
Surfaktan sebagai Anti busa.
Busa harus dicegah dalam sediaan farmasi terutama emulsi karena dalam industri secara pabrikasi, pengisian botol melalui mesin. Pada mesin pengisi ada ukuran tinggi cairan dalam botol sebagai alat kontrol.
Busa / sabun / detergen akan terjadi misel : sabun, air dan udara.
Jika sabun dalam jumlah sedikit, berfungsi sebagai pembasah tapi jika sabun dalam jumlah berlebih akan terjadi busa.
Pecahnya lapisan film dapat dipercepat dengan penambahan surfaktan.
Aplikasi Hidrophyl Lipophyl Balance (HLB) surfaktan dalam pengobatan dipakai untuk melarutkan Cholesterol, Trigliserida dan Asam Urat di dalam darah pada tubuh manusia.
Trigliserida sebagai gugus non polar, kadar normal dalam darah adalah kurang dari 150 mg/dl.
Cholesterol berasal dari karbohidrat yang telah disintesa oleh tubuh dan protein, kadar normal dalam darah adalah kurang dari 200 mg/dl.
Asam urat kadar normal dalam darah adalah kurang dari 7 mg/dl.
Harga normal tersebut diatas tidak mengikat tergantung kit insert / reagent yang dipakai.

The stage of a medicine analgesic

2008-07-11T19:13:00.000-07:00

The stage of a medicine analgesic :
1. morphine derivate
2. diazepam derivate
3. mefenamate acid
4. natrium diklofenak
5. paracetamol
6. antalgin
7. aspirin

Natural dye

2008-06-10T17:19:00.000-07:00

Natural dye, as we knew, many crop kinds and the animal that had beautiful and sparkling colours.
The use of the pigment that came from the crop and this animal has for a long time been carried out by our predecessors, for example the pandanus leaves, the leaves embroidered, turmeric et cetera.
Chlorophyll was the natural pigment green that generally is met to the leaves, so as often was acknowledged as the chlorophyll pigment.
This pigment often was asosiationed with the freshness of vegetables or did not yet cook to the fruit.
Gotten by 2 chlorophyll kinds that succeeded in being isolated that is chlorophyll A and chlorophyll B.
Both of them were met to the crop with the comparison 3 :1.
Chlorophyll A including in the pigment that was mentioned porfirin; haemoglobin also including inside. Clorophil a contained the atom Mg that was tied with N from 2 rings pirol with the covalent association as well as by two N atoms from two rings other pirol via the association of the co-ordinate; that is N from pirol that contributed his electron couple in Mg.
In the process of the processing of food, the most general change happened was the replacement of the magnesium atom with the hydrogen atom that formed feofitin was marked by the change in the colour from green became brown olive that was gloomy.
Mioglobin and haemoglobin were the red pigment to meat that was compiled by protein globin and heme that had the core took the form of iron.
Heme was the compound that consisted of two parts that is the iron atom and a ring plana that was big that is porfirin.
Porfirin was compiled by four rings pirol that was connected one in an other manner with meten bridge.
Heme was also mentioned feroprotoporfirin.
Both haemoglobin and mioglobin had the function that was similar that is functioning in transfor oxygen for the need of metabolism.
Karotenoid was the coloured pigment group yellow, oranye, red oranye that was most protracted in lipida (oil), came from the animal and the crop, for example fukoxanthin that was met in moss, lutein, violaxanthin, and neoxanthin was gotten to the foliage, likopen to tomatoes, kapsanthin to the red chilli, biksin in annatto, caroten to carrots, and astazanthin to the lobster.
Anthosianin and anthoxanthin was classified as the pigment that was mentioned flavonoid that generally protracted in water.
Anthosianin was compiled by one aglikon that take the form of anthosianidin that teresterifikasi with the sugar molecule that could one or more.
Sugar that often was found was glucose, ramnosa, galaktosa, xilosa and arabinosa.
Anthosianin that contained one sugar molecule was mentioned monosida, two sugars were mentioned diosida and three sugars were mentioned triosida.
Gotten by six kinds anthosianidin that often was met in the wild, that was important for food that is pelargonidin, sianidin, delfinidin, peonidin, petunidin and malvinidin.
All anthosianidin was derivative from the structure of the foundation kation flavilium.
To the molecule flavilium happened subsitusi with the molecule OH and Ome to form anthosianidin.
The colour of the pigment anthosianin red, blue, violet and usually was gotten to the flower, the fruit and vegetables.
The colour of the pigment was influenced by the concentration of the pigment, and pH. Pada the watery concentration anthosianin was blue, conversely in the thick concentration was red and the normal concentration was purple.
In the low pH the pigment anthosianin was red and in the high pH changed became violet and afterwards became blue.

Food colouring

2008-06-10T07:48:00.000-07:00

The determination of the quality of the foodstuff generally really depends on several factors among them the taste, the colour of the texture and the nutritive value.
But before these factors was considered in a fisual manner the colour factor appeared beforehand and occasionally was critical.
Apart from as the factor that was decisive the quality, the colour could be also used as the indicator of the freshness or the maturity.
The colour also could show whether some mixing or the processing has been carried out with good or not yet.
FDA defined additional dye as dye, the pigment or the other material that was made by means of synthetic or chemical or the natural material from the crop, the animal or the other source that was extracted, was isolationed, that when being added or used to the foodstuff, medicine or cosmetics, could become part of the colour of this material.
Five because that could cause a material to be coloured that is:
1.Pigmen that naturally was met to the animal and the crop.
2.Reaction caramelisasion that produced the colour of chocolate.
3.Reaction Maillard that could produce the unclear colour.
4.Reaction oxidation.
5.addition the good pigment the natural pigment (the pigment) and synthetic.
In the processing of modern food, colouring matters were often added with the aim of improving the colour from the foodstuff or to reinforce the original colour from this foodstuff material.
In this Chapter discussions were about the pigment restricted only for the natural pigment (the pigment) and the synthetic pigment that including the group of the food additive.

The preservative

2008-06-07T06:41:00.000-07:00

The preservative had a function of extending the age kept a food and in this case with the road to hinder the growth of the microbe.
Because of that often also was acknowledged as the compound anti microbe.
Various compounds had the characteristics as anti microbe, among them sulfit and sulphur dioxide, salt nitrit and the nitrate, acid sorbat, acid propionat, acetic acid, acid benzoat. sulphur dioxide has for a long time been used in food as the preservative and using him developed by various forms like gas SO2, salt bisulfit and sulfit.
The research shown that sulphur dioxide was most effective worked in the condition for the low pH and it was estimated this as a result of by H2SO3 that in the solution was not disosiasioned.
In the situation was not disosiasioned, this acid more was easy to penetrate the wall of the microbe cell.
Apart from acting as the sulphur dioxide preservative also could prevent the occurrence browning non enzimatics (the Maillard reaction) that is by means of reacting with sugar reducsier and the compound between aldehida.
Sulphur dioxide also had the effect bleached the pigment melanoidin that was formed in the Maillard reaction so as very effective in preventing the reaction browning this.
Sulphur dioxide also often was added in flour to interrupt the association disulfida to protein and improved the quality of batter that was produced.
Sulphur dioxide and sulfit could be metabolismed became the sulphate and could be excresion in urine without the other side-effect.
Salt potasiium or sodium from nitrit and the nitrate was added in the process curing meat, also could hinder the growth of the microbe.
The compound that played a role in being nitrit and in the concentration 150-200 ppm could hinder the Clostridia growth in meat that was tinned.
Nevertheless, the use nitrit at this time was avoided because of being expected produced nitrosamin that was carcinogenic.
Acid sorbat that was acid mono carboksilat and anolog-analogous him had the double association a (a-unsaturated) had the characteristics anti microbe that was very strong.
This acid is usually used in the form of salt sodium and his potassium and was known effective hindered the growth of mildew and yeast in various food like cheese, products bakery, juice, the wine and the pickle.
Acid sorbat very effective pressed the growth of mildew and did not influence the food taste in the level of the increase that was permitted (until 0.3% heavy the material).
The activity of acid sorbat and very analogous his fatty acid was estimated because of the microbe could not metabolism the system dien with the double association .
Estimated acid sorbat disrupted the activity enzime dehidrogenase the fatty acid at the beginning of his activity.
Acid propionat and acetate also played a role as anti the microbe especially mildew and several bacterium.
Acid propionat usually was used in the form of salt natrium and calcium.
This compound was naturally received in cheese swiss (until 1% heavy).
Acid propionat apart from could hinder mildew also could hinder the Bacillus growth mesentericus that caused damage ropy bread.
As in the case of anti microbe other, acid propionat in the form of was not disosiasioned more potent.
Toksisitas acid propionat for mildew and some bacterium were resulted in by the inability of these microbes in metabolism 3-carbon chain.
The use of acetic acid in conservation of food already since long before, like in pickle, apart from the vinegar (4 % acetic acid).
Apart from as anti microbe, acetic acid also was contributioned towards the food taste like to mayonnaise, the pickle, tomato sauce et cetera.
The activity anti microbe acetic acid increased with decreased him the pH.
Benzoic acid was often used as anti microbe in food like juice, the soft drink et cetera.
Salt sodium from benzoic acid more often was used because was more protracted water than the form of his acid.
Benzoic acid very potent against yeast and the bacteria and most effective in hindering the growth of mildew.
Benzoic acid was often combined in a sour manner sorbat and was added in the number around 0,05-0,1% heavy the material.

The sweetener

2008-06-07T06:28:00.000-07:00

The sweetener was the very general foodstuff component, because of that was rather strange if being put into the list of the food additive.
Because of that that including BTM was the replacement sweetener of sucrose.
The sweetener, both that was natural and synthetic, was the compound that gave the perception of the sweet feeling but did have non-nutritive sweeteners.
A compound to be able to be used as the sweetener, except for feeling sweet must fill several certain criteria, like (1) protracted and stable in the range of the wide pH, (2) stable in the range of the wide temperature, (3) had the sweet feeling and did not have side or aftertaste and (4) cheap, at least did not exceed the price of sugar sucrose.
The compound that had the sweet feeling of his structure was very heterogenous.
Nevertheless, these compounds had feature that was similar, that is having the donor system/the proton acceptor (the system of AH/B) that agreed with the receptor system (AH/B) in the sense humankind.
Saccharin, was the eldest sweetener, including the very important sweetener his role and usually was sold in the form of Na salt or Ca.
The level of the sweetness of saccharin was 300 times was sweeter than sugar.
Because of not having the value calorie, saccharin was very popular was used as the sweetener of diet food.
In the high concentration of saccharin had aftertaste bitter.
Despite results of the testing to the trial animal shown the trend that saccharin caused the carcinogenic effect but this still could not be proven by humankind.
Siklamat was the sweetener non-nutritif that was not lost popular him after saccharin.
The level of his sweetness 30 times were sweeter than sugar and did not give after taste.
Aspartam or metil the ester from L-aspartil-L-fenilalanin was the new sweetener that his use began to be bright around the 1980 's for soft drink products.
Aspartam was the sweetener that had the value calorie because aspartam was some dipeptida, but because of the level of his sweetness that was high (200 sucrose times) then only was added in the small number so as thought calorie him could be ignored.
Because was dipeptida, sapartam was easy terhidrolisis, was easy to experience the reaction of normal chemistry happened to the other food component and possibly terdegradasi by the microbe.
This matter definitely was the limitations of the use aspartam to food products was graded high water.
If experiencing hydrolysis aspartam will lose the feeling of the sweetness.

In food aspartam could experience condensation intramolukuler produced diketo piperazin.
During the 1970 's in America, Canada and England siklamat was banned by his use because of his degradation product that is sikloheksil amina was carcinogenic.
Asesulfam K. after aspartam, the synthetic sweetener that was agreed to using him in the foodstuff was asesulfam K. Asesulfam K was the compound 6-metil-1,2,3-oksatizin-4 (3H) -on-2,2-dioksida or was acid asetoasetat and acid sulfamat.
The level of the sweetness asesulfam was 200 times was sweeter than sucrose.
The testing of the laboratory proved that sesulfam K was not dangerous for humankind and his stability while the processing was very good.

Anti solid

2008-06-07T06:20:00.000-07:00

Anti solid was the compound anhidrat that could tie water without becoming wet and being usually added in the foodstuff that was shaped like a powder/partikulat like table salt.
The aim of the increase in the compound anti solid was to prevent the occurrence of the agglomeration and guarded so that this material could be free flowing.
The compound anti solid usually was salts anhidrat that was fast hydrated bindingly water, or compounds that could tie water through surface adhesion without becoming wet and forming lumps.
These compounds usually are the compound that naturally have the shape of near crystalline.
The compound anti solid could be classed to (1) salt (aluminium, ammonium, calcium, potassium and sodium) from the long chain fatty acid (miristat, palmitat, stearat); (2) phosphate calcium; (3) potassium and sodium ferisianida; (4) oxide magnesium and (5) salt (aluminium, magnesium, calcium and the mixture of aluminium calcium) from silicate acids.
The group's compound 1, 2, and 3 formed the hydrate, whereas 4 and 5 absorbed water.
Potassium and sodium ferosinida not many others were used because tokisitas him that was relatively high.
The number that is added usually revolved about 1% heavy the foodstuff.
The compound anti solid generally could be metabolismed or not toxic in the level of the use that was permitted.
Silicate calcium was often used to avoid the agglomeration baking powder and had the capacity to tie water 2.5 times from the weight.
Apart from tying water, silicate calcium could also tie oil and compounds non polar other.
These characteristics that made silicate calcium were often used in mixtures that contained the spice, especially that the content of his oil was high.
Calcium stearat often was used as prossesing aid in the production of hard candy.
The compound anti solid that relatively just was developed was the microcrystalline cellulose powder and often was used for the product of grater cheese in order to not form the clump

TBHQ (Tertiary Butylhydroquinone).

2008-06-03T08:15:00.000-07:00

TBHQ was antioksidan that was most effective in oil ate compared with BHA, BHT, PG and tokoferol.
TBHQ had the characteristics (1) bersinergis with BHA (2) was protracted enough in fat (3) did not form the complex with the metal ion but could change became pink, if reacting with alkali.
The use dose from each one anti oxide synthetic this not be the same to respectively the country.

BHT (Butylated Hydroxytoluene).

2008-06-03T08:14:00.001-07:00

The BHT characteristics really resembled BHA and bersinergis with BHA. Propil Galat.
The appearance galat was the ester from propanol from acid trihidroksi benzoat.
The physical form from the appearance galat was white crystal.
The appearance galat had the characteristics: (1) could bersinergis with BHA and BHT, (2) was sensitive to hot, (3) formed the coloured complex with the metal ion, therefore if being used in tinned food could influence the appearance of the product.

BHA (Butylated Hydroanisole).

2008-06-03T08:12:00.000-07:00

BHA was the mixture of 2 isomers that is 2- and 3-tertbutilhidroksianisol.
Around to two isomers, the isomer 3-tert had the activity anti oxide that was more effective than the isomer 2-tert.
The physical form from BHA was white solid matter resembled the candle, was protracted in fat and not protracted in water

ANTI OXIDE

2008-06-03T07:48:00.000-07:00

Anti oxide was the additive that was used to protect food components that were not bored (had the double association), especially fat and oil.
Nevertheless antioksidan also could be used to protect the other component like vitamins and the pigment, that also often contained the double association inside their structure.
the Mechanism of the work anti oxide generally was to hinder fat oxidation.
To facilitate the understanding about the mechanism of the work antioksidan must be explained beforehand the mechanism of fat oxidation.
Fat oxidation consisted of three main stages that is the initiation, propagasi, and terminasi.
In the initiation stage the formation of the fatty acid of the radical, that is the descendants's compound of the fatty acid that was unstable happened and very reactive resulting from from the loss of one hydrogen
atom.
In the further stage, that is propagation, the fatty acid radical will react with oxygen formed the radical peroksi.
The radical peroksi further will attack the fatty acid produced hydroperoksida and the new fatty acid radical.
Hidroperoksida that was formed was unstable and would be degradationed further produced compounds karbonil the short chain like aldehida and keton that was responsible upper flavor food was fatty.
Anti oxide that was good will react radically the fatty acid immediately after this compound was formed.
From various anti oxide available, the mechanism of the work as well as his capacity as anti oxide very varying.
Often, the combination of several kinds anti oxide gave the better protection (sinergisme) towards oxidation compared with one kind anti oxide then.
For example ascorbic acid was often mixt with antioksidan that was the compound fenolik to prevent the reaction of fat oxidation.
Without the existence antioksidan, the reaction of fat oxidation will experience terminasi through the reaction between the radical free to form the complex not the radical.
The existence of the metal ion, especially the iron and copper, could push the occurrence of fat oxidation.
These metal ions often are inactivationed with the increase in the compound pengkelat also could be mentioned was sinergistik with antioksidan because increased the effectiveness antioksidan especially.
A compound to be able to be used as anti oxide must have the characteristics: not toxic, effective in the low concentration (0,01-0,02%), could be focussed to the surface/the layer of fat (was lipophilic) and must be able to the stage in the condition for the processing of food generally.
Was based on his source anti oxide could be classed in two kinds that is the first kind, anti oxide that was natural, like the component fenolik/flavonoid, vitamin E, vitamin C and I-karoten and the kind to two, was anti oxide synthetic like BHA (butylated hydroxyanisole), BHT (butylated hydroxytoluene, the appearance galat (PG), TBHQ (in-t-butyl hydroquinone).

Surfactant news

2008-06-03T07:42:00.000-07:00

The surfactant was the active substance that played a role as emulsifier oil and water, that uptil now originated in the petroleum raw material.
The surfactant was the production of the descendants from alcohol fat.
As for the alcohol fat personally was one among 10 secondary products of the oil palm industry.
At least had 13 surfactant kinds that could be produced from coconut palm oil.
From various surfactant kinds, further could be produced was varied the commercial product.
Mentioned as the cleaner's raw material took the form of detergent and pelembut clothes; cosmetics that covered soap, sampo, the maintenance of skin, as far as toothpaste.
From the surfactant also could be produced textile coloring matters, the lubricant, the pharmacy raw material for medicine and the production of the vaccine, as well as the additive for fuel oil.

Make sun protection

2008-05-31T10:04:00.000-07:00

SUN PROTECTION, SPF 30
A. (%)
Sodium dihydroxycetyl phosphate 3.00
Ethylhexyl ethyihexanoate 8.00
Triisononanoin 4.00
Polyglyceryl-3-caprate 0.30
Bisabolol 0.10
Benzophenone-3 2.00
Octyl methoxycinnamate 4.00
Menthyl anthranilate 3.50
Titanium dioxide, dimethicone 2.00
Cera alba 1.00
Glyceryl stearate 2.00

Water (aqua), 63.80
Xanthan gum 0.50
Pentylene glycol 5.00
Water (aqua), oat (Avena sativa) kernel extract 0.50

C.
Fragrance 0.30
100.00

Production :

A heat until 80°C.

B heat until 80°C.

A into B with mixing.

Cool until 35° C.

C into (A + B)

Make lightening cream

2008-05-31T09:32:00.000-07:00

LIGHTENING CREAM
A (%)
Water (aqua): 75.15%

Glycolic acid, 70% 3.00
Triethanolamine, 98% 1.00

Cetearyl alcohol, dicetyl phosphate, ceteth-10 phosphate 3.50
Ethylhexyl pelargonate 3.00
PPG-3 benzyl ether myristate 2.00

Sodium acrylate/sodium acryloydimethyl taurate copolymer,
Paraffinum liquidum (mineral oil), trideceth-6 2.50

E.
Water (aqua) 5.00
Triethanolamine, 98% 0.75

Glycerin 2,00
Cyclopentasiloxane 1.00
Caprylic/capric triglyceride, Chamomilla recutita
(matricaria) extract 0.50
Glycerin, butylene glycol, water (aqua), Magnolia biondi flower
Extract 0.50
Methylchloroisothiazolinone 0.10
100.00
Production:
B into A mixing and heat until 75°C.

C heat until 75°C.

D into C mixed until homogeneous.

DC into BA, cooling until 60°C.

E heat until 60°C.

E into DCBA.

EDCBA cool until 40°C + F

Cool down while mixed until room temperature and become emulsion form.

Material function

2008-05-31T09:27:00.000-07:00

• PPG-15 stearyl ether (emollient)
• Octyldodecyl stearoyl stearate (emollient / viscosity controlling)
• Pentaerythrityl tetraisostearate (emollient / emulsifying / surfactant)
• Retinyl palmitate (skin conditioning)
• Caprylic capric triglyceride (emollient)
• Polysorbate 80 (emulsifying / surfactant)
• Lecithin (antistatic / emollient / emulsifying / skin conditioning)
• Benzalkonium chloride (preservative / antistatic)
• Pentylene glycol (solvent)
• sclerotium gum (emulsion stabilising / viscosity controlling)
• Sodium acrylates copolymer (binding / opacifying)
• Hydrogenated polydecene (emollient)
• PPG-1 trideceth-6 (emollient / emulsion stabilizing)
• Sodium dihydroxycetyl phosphate (surfactant / hair conditioning)
• Ethylhexyl ethylhexanoate (emollient)
• Triisononanoin (emollient / skin Conditioning)
• Polyglyceryl-3-caprate (emollient)
• Bisabolol (soothing)
• Menthyl anthranilate (UV absorber)
• Cera alba (emollient / emulsifying / film forming)
• Xanthan gum (binding / emulsion stabilising / viscosity controlling / Gel forming)
• Pentylene glycol (solvent)

Make antiwrinkle cream

2008-05-31T08:55:00.000-07:00

ANTIWRINKLE CREAM
A (%)
PPG-15 stearyl ether 4.50
Octyldodecyl stearoyl stearate 6.00
Pentaerythritol tetraisostearate 3.50
Water (aqua) qs to 100.00

B.
Water (aqua), retinyl palmitate, caprylic capric triglyceride,
polysorbate 80, lecithin,
benzalkonium chloride 4.50
Pentylene glycol, sclerotium gum 2.00
Sodium benzoate 0.10
Propylene glycol, diazolidinyl urea, iodopropynyl butylcarbamate 0.50

Sodium acrylates copolymer, hydrogenated polydecene,
PPG-1 trideceth-6 1.30

Production :

B into A.

C into BA.

Mixed with stirring.

pH is arranged : 5.50 – 6.00

Surfactants at various HLB values.

2008-05-31T08:46:00.000-07:00

Surfactants at various HLB values.

HLB value Surfactant function Miscibility in water

1 — 5	Water-in-oil emulsifier	lmmiscible or poor dispersible
5 — 8	Water-in-oil emulsifier Oil-in-water emulsifier Wetting agent	Dispersible
8 — 12	Oil-in-water emulsifier Wetting agent	Fine particle size opaque to translucent dispersion
12 — 15	Oil-in-water emulsifier Detergent and solubiliser	Translucent dispersion to clearly soluble
15 - 20	Oil-in-water emulsifier Detergent and solubiliser	Clearly soluble

Hydrocarbons

2008-05-29T07:51:00.000-07:00

The hydrocarbon propellants are propane (freezing point —42.1), n-butane (freezing point — 0.5) and isobutane (freezing point — 11.7). Commercial butane is always a mixture of n-butane and isobutane. Mixtures with propane in different ratios are usually used to adjust the pressure. Hydrocarbons are cheap, stable and of low toxicity, but are highly flammable.

Aerosol propellants

2008-05-29T07:49:00.000-07:00

A few years ago only one group of aerosol propellants, the fluorocarbons, was used. Due to the well-founded suspicion that these chemicals damage the ozone layer, they are now virtually obsolete. The gap has been filled by the increased use of pump systems, and by hydrocarbons and dimethyl ether.

W/O stabilizers

2008-05-29T07:45:00.000-07:00

A relatively simple way of obtaining highly stable W/O emulsions is to use block copolymers such as PEG-45 dodecyl glycol copolymer. These products, with molecular weights of 2000 to 4000, can improve the stability of W/O emulsions by protection of the droplets from coalescence. The hydrophilic middle part is responsible for a good anchorage in the water phase, while the highly branched ends give a steric hindering effect. The high molecular weight imparts excellent skin compatibility. Contrary to other stabilizers, for example metal soaps, which increase the viscosity of the outer emulsion phase, these copolymers typically reduce the viscosity. It is possible to obtain light, highly stable W/O lotions that are good bases for sun preparations and which give a skin-feel very close to emulsions.

Single W/O emulsifiers

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A limited number of W/0 emulsifiers are available. This is because ionic emulsifiers will not work in the case of W/0 emulsions and, since very low HLB is required. variations using ethylene oxide are not possible. W/0 emulsifiers have HLB values between 3 and 6. However, the type of the alkyl chain is also important. In practire, oleyl derivatives have shown good effects. The most widely used W/O emulsifiers are sorbitan monooleate, sorbitan sequioleate and glycerol monooleate, and with increasing importance, polyglycerol esters.
In addition to oleate, ricinoleates and isostearates have aIso found use.

The methoxy PEG-22 dodecyl glycol copolymer is a high molecular weight W/O emulsifier, which is especially effective in formulations containing mineral oils. It is a saturated ether and is therefore stable against oxidation and hydrolysis.

Water-in—oil (W/O) emulsifiers

2008-05-29T07:31:00.000-07:00

From the dermatological point of view, W/O emulsions are preferable to O/W emulsions. The natural lipid fiIm on the skin is also a W/O emulsion. W/0 emulsions can improve the hydration of the skin and are an ideal base for lipid-soluble active ingredients. A problematic point is that they usually leave a ‘fatty-feeling’ on the skin, and this is not particularly appreciated by customers.
Another problem can be ‘oiling-off’ or separation of the oil phase on storage. Viscosity a ad stability are extremely process sensitive.

O/W stabilizers

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Very efficient and widely used stabilizers for O/W emulsions are polymers, especially the carbomers (CTFA-name). These are polyacrylate resins which have to be neutralized in order to form gels, usually by the use of triethanolamine (TEA). Amounts up to 0.5% are recommended for cosmetic emulsions. Too much can leave an unpleasant feel on the skin. The principle of stabilization is the thickening of the outer phase. The use of preneutralized copolymers, e.g. acrylamide/sodiurn acrylate copolymer can make incorporation and handling easier.

Non-ionic O/W emuIsifiers

2008-05-29T07:22:00.000-07:00

A wealth of non-ionic 0/W emulsifiers is available. These are mainly PEG derivatives such as êthoxylates or PEG esters. Typical O/W emulsifiers are :
• ethoxylated fatty a!coho
• PEG esters of fatty acids
• ethoxylated sorbitan esters
• ethoxylated monoglycerides
• ethoxylated castor-oil derivatives.
The degree of ethoxylation determines the primary properties of that part of the molecule that results in the HLB classification. Good 0/W emulsifiers can be found in the HLB range between 8 and 18. However, the type of hydrophobic moiety is also very important for the stability of the emulsions. Contrary to anionic emulsifiers, the non-ionics are unaffected by changes in pH and, in the case of pure ethers, they can also be used at extreme pH values.
Following the trend towards more ‘natural’ cosmetics, trials have been made in order to replace the E0 chain by polyglycerol or sugars but up till now it has not been possible to reach high HLB values.

Cationic O/W emulsifiers

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Cationic emulsifiers have generally been avoided in skin-care products because they are often more irritant compared with anionic emulsifiers. They are important in hair-care formulations, where they act as conditioners and anti- static agents. Their advantage, particularly distearylammonium chloride, is that they produce emulsified products with excellent cushion feel on skin and mitigate the heavy feel imparted by glycerin.

Oil-in-water (0/W) emulsifiers

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Oil-in-water (0/W) emulsifiers

- Anionic O/W emulsifiers

Anionic 0/W emulsifiers can be used to obtain very stable emulsions because they can build an electrical double layer around the droplets, which prevents the droplets from coalescing. On the other hand, anionic emulsifiers are sensitive to low pH and electrolytes.
The most important anionic 0/W emulsifier is soap, which forms the stearate creams. Neutralized with potassium hydroxide, the stearate is alkaline. The use of triethanolamine as a neutralizing agent is more common. A disadvantage of stearic acid s the typical ‘soap-up’ effect, a type of foaming that occurs when the cream is rubbed into the skin. To prevent this, silicon oil is frequently added to the formulations.
Other very effective anionic emulsifiers are alkyl sulfates, particularly sodium cetearyl sulfate. In principle, all anionic surfactants can be used. However, due to the fact that the soaps are relatively alkaline and fatty alcohol sulfates are irritant to the skin, the mild surfactants are of more interest. These include sodium cocoyl isethionate as an extremely mild emulsifier, and phosphoric acid esters, like potassium cetyl phosphate which are very effective at low concentrations.

Fatty acids

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Fatty acids, like the fatty alcohols, are important raw materials for cosmetic ingredients such us surfactants, emulsifiers and emollients. Fatty acids are obtained by saponification of naturally-derived triglycerides. As such, they are seldom used in emulsions. They act as consistency regulators but tend to crystallize in the formulation.
Fatty acids especially stearic acids, are mainly used in the form of soaps. As the pH increases, they become truly anionic and act as oil-in-water (O/W) emulsifiers. forming a group of so-called stearate creams.
Commercially available stearic acids are often mixtures of C16 and C18 fatty acids, mainly I : 1. The preferred cosmetic quality with low odor is a triple-pressed stearine with an iodine value below 2. A special application of the fatty acids is their use in alcohol stick formulations, where stearic acid is dissolved in ethanol and then neutralized with sodium hydroxide. These hard sticks are used as deodorant bases.

Polyol esters

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The most important polyol ester is the so-called glycerol monostearate (GMS). Generally, it is not a pure product but a mixture of mono- and diesters of stearic and palmitic acids. The main distinguishing feature is the content of monoester. Products with approx. 4O% monoester are obtained by direct esterification of stearic acid and glycerol. Products with approx. 6O% monoester are produced by glycerolysis of triglycerides with glycerol. The 9O% material can be obtained by molecular distillation but is seldom used in cosmetic formulations because the mono/diesters provide the best applicational properties.
GMS is poorly soluble in waler. However, as with the fatty alcohols, when combined with more hydrophilic emulsifiers, it is an excellent co-emulsifier
and becomes self-emulsifying. Typical combinations are :
• GMS plus potassium stearate (GMS self-emulsifying’)
• GMS plus sodium lauryl sulfate
• GMS plus ethoxylated fatty alcohols (‘GMS sell-emulsifying, acid stable’)
Other polyol esters used a co-emulsifiers are the sorbitan esters, especially the monostearate. These are obtained by dehydration of sorbitol to sorbitan followed by esterification with fatty acid. Such products are typically offered as pure products, and function as water-in-oil (W/O) emülsifiers. In oil-in- water formulations they are most often combined with ethoxylated products of the same family.

Cream bases

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Cream bases

- Fatty alcohols

Fatty alcohols are important raw materials for surfactants, emollients and emulsifiers. Pure fatty alcohols, mainly cetyl alcohol and stearyl alcohol, are also used per se as consistency regulators and co-emulsifiers in, for example, creams, lotions and hair rinses. The so-culled natural fatty alcohols are obtained by hydration of fatty acid methyl esters. Similar, linear primary alcohols can be obtained from the Ziegler process. The branched types obtained from oxo-synthesis are important as raw material feedstock, but are not used as alcohols perse. Mixtures of cetyl and stearyl alcánois combined with hydrophilic emulsifiers are known as the emulsifying waxes’ of the British Pharmacopoeia. In such combinations the fatty alcohols are self-emulsifying. Common combinations are:

(i) cetearyl alcohol plus sodium cetearyl sulfate
(ii) cetearyl alcohol plus PEG-1000 monocetyl ether
(iii) cetearyl alcohol plus alkyl trimethyl ammonium bromide

As examples for(i) anionic;(ii) non-ionic: and (iii) cationic cream bases. Type (iii) combinations are mainly used in hair-rinse formulations. The fatty alcohol gives texture and body to the formulation and acts as consistency regulator.

Silicone oils

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The high molecular weight organo polysiloxanes (dimethicone) are hydrophobic oils with good skin protection and non-sticky skin-feel. They show very high spreading and are used in small amounts in stearate creams to avoid the soap-up effect. properties, silicone oils are important for waterproof sun products. They are usually classified by viscosity.
Cyclic methyl polysiloxanes (cyclomethicone) are particularly volatile. They are used in hair-care products to improve the gloss of the hair and the compatibility of the product.

Waxes

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Waxes

The word wax has two different meanings. From a chemical point of view it means an ester of a fatty acid and a fatty alcohol. Jojoba oil is therefore a liquid wax. In this Section, however, the word wax is considered from a physical point of view, and means compounds having a high melting point (approx 50—100°C).

- Natural waxes

The most important wax, and a classical component for creams, is beeswax, which is the construction material of honeycombs.

The melting point is around 61 to 66°C. Untreated beeswax is dark-yellow and is usually treated to improve the color.
Beeswax is a very good consistency regulator in creams and ointments and is also used in stick formulations. The addition of approx. 6 percent of borax, calculated on the beeswax, results in partial saponification and provides the beeswax with some emulsifying properties, This principle was used in the classic cold-cream formulations. Nowadays, European law restricts the use of borax in cosmetic products.
Two other natural waxes that are harder and therefore mainly used in stick formulations are carnauba wax (melting point approx. 85°C) and candelilla wax (melting point approx. 70°C). Both are extracted from South American plants.

- Synthetic waxes
Due to the varying qualities of the natural products, especially yearly and source variations of beeswax, synthetic substitutes are of interest. These are often mixtures of very different chemicals, and result from empirical research. An example of a beeswax replacement the mixture of glyceryl hydroxystearate (and) cetyl palmitate (and) microcrystalline wax (and) trihydroxy stearine. A single defined product with a structure close to beeswax is hydroxyoctacosanyl hydroxystearate, an ester of a C26-β-hydroxyalcohol and hydroxystearic acid. This product, which shows very similar behavior compared with beeswax, is easy to emulsify and can be used as a general Consistency regulator for cosmetic emulsions.
Another synthetic wax is synthetic spermaceti. The natural type is no longer available because it is obtained from whales, but was formerly an excellent wax compound for emulsions. Replacements are cetyl palmitate, which is the main component of the natural spermaceti or special mixtures like the cetyl esters wax NF, which comes very close to the natural product.

Synthetic oils

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Synthetic oils
Synthetic oils are esters, usually obtained by direct reaction of fatty acids with alcohols. Common fatty acids are caprylic. caprinic. lauric, myristic. palmitic, stearic, oleic, linoleic and behenic acid, and also adipic acid, a dicarboxylic acid. Alcohols can be, for example, isopropyl, butyl, ethylhexyl, myristyl or oleyl alcohol, as well as polyvalent alcohols such as ethylene glycol, propylene glycol and glycerol. A wide range of combinations to produce different synthetic esters is possible, and the list of synthetic oils available to the cosmetic industry is long.
In addition to products obtained via normal esterification using chemical catalysts, esters obtained by enzymatic catalysis are now also available]. Possibly advantages can be found in the case of oleic acid derivatives, because esterification can be obtained under milder conditions. Consequently, a light color and weak odor can be expected.
- Isopropyl esters
The most important synthetic ester for cosmetics is isopropy myristate. It has a very dry character and shows good spreading on the skin. It can open films of mineral oil or other fatty oils in order to let water evaporate, and it is an excellent solvent for perfumes, ultraviolet filters, etc.
A disadvantage of isopropyl myristate is its high comedogenicity.
Due to their good solvent properties, the isopropyl esters can cause difficulties when used in formulation that are filled into polystyrene or polyethylene containers.
- Ethylhexyl esters
Other alternatives to isopropyl myristate are the ethylhexyl esters of palmitic acid or stearic acid. These have become important products for the cosmetic industry. Compared with isopropyl esters, the molecular weight is higher, but spreading properties are similar.

- Oleic acid esters

The two most important oleates are decyl oleate and oleyl oleate. The character of these esters is relatively fatty and, as with unsaturated esters, they can become rancid. The advantage of the oleates is that, even at high molecular weight, the esters are liquid.
Interesting alternatives to the oleates are the isostearates. Esters of branched isostearic acid are also liquid and present no oxidation problem. The limiting factor for use is the price, which is much higher than that of the oleates.

- Caprylic/capric acid esters

The most important caprylic/capric esters are the triglyceride and the propylene glycol diester. The glycerol ester is mainly used as a replacement for natural triglycerides, with the advantage that it is stable against oxidation. Like the natural triglycerides, the products are relatively difficult to emulsify. Due to the typical odor of short chain fatty acids, caprylic/capric esters must be produced in very pure form. Following long-term storage, hydrolysis, which leads to changes in the odor of cosmetic products, can take place.

Continuation of natural oils

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safflower oil where no comedogenic effects have been found. Other examples of natural triglycerides are peanut oil, soy oil, olive oil, wheat germ oil and avocado oil.
A special triglyceride is castor oil, which is obtained from the seed of Ricinus communis. This oil is based on ricinoleic acid, an unsaturated C18 hydroxy fatty acid. Contrary to other triglycerides, it is easily soluble in alcohol. Castor oil is used in lipsticks and also in alcoholic preparations.

Jojoba oil

Unlike the oils described in the previous section, jojoba oil is not a triglyceride. It is a liquid, unsaturated wax from the esters of long carbon-chain fatty acids (C20 to C22) and long carbon-chain unsaturated alcohols (C20, C22). Its source is the jojoba plant, which grows in California and Mexico. Jojoba oil has a very fatty character and shows excellent cosmetic properties.

Natural oils

2008-05-28T08:40:00.000-07:00

Natural oils

Triglycerides
Natural oils from vegetable sources are mainly glycerol esters based on mixtures of C_8/22 fatty acids. The most important are the saturated lauric (C12), myristic (C14), palmitic (C16), and stearic (C18) acids and the unsaturated oleic (C18) and linoleic (C18) acids. These fatty acids are derived from natural sources and typically have even numbers of carbon atoms in their chains.
Important characteristic values for triglycerides are the saponification number and the iodine number. The latter indicates the amount of unsaturated fatty acids present. Although, due to the natural source, better skin compatibility compared with synthetic materials is expected, triglycerides are relatively problematic to use in cosmetic emulsions. In addition to the difficulty of emulsification, the products can become rancid due tó the presence of unsaturated fatty acids. Consequently,antioxidizing agents usually have to be added.
It is important to use only high-quality triglycerides. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) can be a problem, particularly in the case of coconut oil. This is due to contamination from blue gases when the copra, from which the coconut oil is derived, is dried. Treatment with activated carbon can remove these impurities.
Triglycerides are relatively fatty and spread very little on the skin. They generally show moderate comedogenicity, exceptions being sunflower oil and ...

Oil components

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Oil components
Mineral oil
Mineral oils for cosmetic use are high-boding fractions obtained from crude oil distribution that are purified and refined by treatment with sulfuric acid. Two types are of importance :

(i) liquid paraffin (viscosity I 10 to 23OmPas);

(ii) light liquid paraffin (viscosity 25 to 8OmPas).

Mineral oils are colorless. clear and odorless liquids, insoluble in alcohol or water. They are excellent cosmetic emollients
because they are inert and do not penetrate into the skin. They therefore have excellent skin compatibility and little or no comedogenic potential. Since they are not considered ‘natural’, mineral oils have been attacked repeatedly but are still the most widely used oil component in skin-care formulations. Nevertheless, 3.7% of the human strateum corneum lipids are n-alkanes.
Due to their fatty character, mineral oils form a film on the skin which increases hydration by blocking the normal evaporation of water. Combinations with synthetic esters such as isopropyl stearate are recommended in order to open the film, and to guaranted the right balance for water evaporation.

Sequestering agents

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Sequestering agents like ethylenediamine tetraacetate (EDTA) are used to prevent the formation and deposition of Ca and Mg soaps and to clarify formulations when hard water is used for the production of shampoo and bath preparations. As a positive side-effect they can also give support to the preservation system.
The outer membrane of Gram-negative organisms like Pseudomonas is very complex and is stabilized by Ca and Mg ions. Strong chelating agents will destabilize this membrane making it more permeable for the preserving agents.

Conditioning agents

2008-05-28T08:15:00.000-07:00

Shampooing with pure anionic surfactants can leave hair difficult to comb while wet, and prone to ‘fly-away’ when combed after drying. Improvement of the wet-combability and reduction of static charge build-up can be achieved by addition of conditioning agents. These are especially effective if the formulation also contains amphoteric surfactants such as betaines or amine oxides. Cationic surfactants used in hair rinses are normally incompatible with anionic surfactants and cannot be used in shampoo formulations. This problem can be overcome by the use of quaternized polymers. An example is Polyquaternium 10, a quaternized hydroxyethyl cellulose, which is compatible with most of the anionic surfactants and can therefore also be used in clear formulations. It shows excellent conditioning properties and imparts manageability and body to hair. Due to its very high substantivity to hair, very low concentrations (below 0.5%) are sufficient. Use of high concentrations may lead to over-conditioning and build-up on the hair. Used in shower- or foam-bath formulations, polyquaternium 10 can improve skin-feel after use. Other important polyquats are Polyquaternium 7, Polyquaternium 23, Polyquaternium 8, and Polyquaternium II (CTFA nomenclature).
Small amounts of fatty components such as fatty alcohols or monoglycerides can support the conditioning effect of shampoos. Silicones can be very effective conditioners but are difficult to incorporate and may act as antifoaming agents.

Foam stabilizers

2008-05-28T08:03:00.000-07:00

In the presence of oily soils such as sebum, the stability of shampoo foam can be drastically reduced. The so-called foam boosters act as stabilizers and also modify the foam structure to give a richer, dense foam with small bubbles. The alkanol amides are well known for this behavior. The most important types are the monoéthanolamides, which are obtained by amidation of fatty acids with monoethanolamine. Diethanolamides are usually obtained by amidation of fatty acid methylester, or triglycerides such as coconut oil, with diethanolamine. The latter are liquid products with a typical glycerol content.
The monoethanolamides are the most effective foam boosters but are difficult to incorporate due to their high melting points (approx. 80⁰ C). The diethanolamide based on coconut oil is the most popular one, although the thickening effect is reduced, due to the glycerol. The price is relatively low and the product is easy to handle compared with pure amides based on methyl ester. Today, the diethanolamides are under discussion due to possible formation of carcinogenic nitrosamines. Consequently, EC regulations allow only alkanolamides with free diethanolamine below 4%.
Other well-known foam boosters are the amine oxides and betaines described previously. Protein hydrolysates and cellulose derivatives such as CMCs are recommended as foam stabilizers. Ethylene glycol mono- and distearates (EGMS, EGDS) are most often used as pearlescent agents in surfactant formulations. They have to be incorporated at high temperatures (approx. 70-75⁰C), therefore ready-made liquid pearlescent bases are now very popular. A wide range of bases with different appearances, from turbid to real pearlescent, is offered on the market. Very effective opacity without pearlescent effect can be achieved with polystyrol dispersions. These are already highly effective at very low concentrations. Direct contact with perfume oils can result in coagulation of the polystyrol, and must be avoided.

Continuing of thickeners

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A side-effect of all these thickeners is that they modify the flow properties, leading to increased Newtonian flow. This contrasts with salt- or polymer- thickened systems, which show typically pseudoplastic flow behavior.
Polymer thickeners like natural gums, cellulose derivatives (carboxymethyl cellulose, hydroxyethyl cellulse) and carbomers (CTFA name) are used more often in emulsions than surfactant-based formulations. Another type of rheological modifier is the inorganic bentonites, which can be used to obtain a yield point. This gives stability to shampoos carrying particles in suspension, e.g. pearlescent formulations or formulations containing zinc pyrithione, preventing sedimentation and separation. The systems are often thixotropic and will flow on shaking. In the absence of shear stress, such systems behave as solids.

Shampoo and bath additives

2008-05-28T07:42:00.000-07:00

Shampoo and bath additives
Thickeners
A high viscosity is often very important both for product stability and for handling of a cosmetic product. For shampoos, shower and foam bath products, viscosities between 400 and 4000mPas are typical. Pearlescent products should have a minimum viscosity of 2000 mPas to avoid precipitation. In the case of ether sulphate as the main surfactant, the thickening can easily be achieved by addition of electrolytes (chlorides of sodium, ammonium or magnesium, for example) to the formulation. The mechanism is by an increase in the size of the micelles. The thickening effect of alkanol amides is similar. Due to possible contamination with nitrosamines, low ethoxylated fatty alcohols such as the laureth-3 are recommended as replacements. These products are also good thickeners but, unlike the alkanol amides, they increase the cloud point of the formulations.
A different principle of thickening is obtained by the use of special, high molecular weight thickeners such as PEG-6000 distearate, talloweth-6O myristyl glycol or PEG-120 methyl glucose dioleate. The structure of talloweth-60 myristyl glycol with its hydrophobic ends is very similar to that of PEG-6000 distearate. An advantage is that it is an ether product which remains stable against hydrolysis at higher temperatures or extreme pH values.

Amphoteric surfactants

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Amphoteric surfactants are surfactants where the charge changes as a function of the pH value of the formulation in which they are used. They are generally regarded a mild surfactants but this is not a simple matter and may not always be true. Amphóteric surfactants build complexes in combination with anionic surfactants and these complexes are milder than the individual surfactants.

Magnesium surfactants

2008-05-27T07:33:00.000-07:00

It is often stated in literature that magnesium surfactants have significantly better skin compatibility than sodium, ammonium or amine neutralized anionic surfactants. Especially in the fatty alcohol sulfates which can be considered as ether sulfates with zero EO groups. In vivo tests have also proven this effect In a flex wash test on ten volunteers, nine strong and one weak reactions were found in the case of the sodium lauryl sulfate, while just one weak reaction was found in the case of a magnesium lauryl sulfate.
The advantage of the magnesium surfactants compared with other mild surfactants is that their applicational properties are practically unchanged compared with the sodium forms. From this point of view they belong to the group of basic surfactants showing high foaming and excellent cleansing properties. In case of the ether sulfate,easy thickening with electrolytes is still possible. The solubility for oils and perfumes is much greater when magnesium surfactants, rather than sodium surfactants are used.
The preservation of formulations based on magnesium surfactants is somewhat problematic. since divalent ions such as magnesium increase the resistance of microbes. Consequently, where magnesium surfactants are used in formulations, the preservation system should be carefully checked.

Mild anionic surfactants

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Compared to the basic surfactants, a much wider group of mild anionic surfactants is used in cosmetics and toiletries. The purpose of mild or secondary surfactants is to improve skin and eye compatibility of the formulation. On the other hand, mild surfactants usually show reduced foaming and cleansing compared with basic surfactants. Fortunately there are many synergisms for combinations of surfactants which are known to compensate or partially compensate for this behavior.

Other basic surfactants

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Linear alkyl benzene sulfonate and alkane sulfonate are very powerful surfactants with good detergency and foaming properties. However, due to their strong defatting action, they leave a harsh and dry feel on skin and hair. For very cheap formulations, small amounts can he used to reduce the costs of raw materials. Their main use is in dish-washing liquids and all purpose cleaners.

Basic surfactants

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The purpose of a shampoo or shower bath is to clean the skin and hair. Customers also expect a dense and luxurious lather, although this effect is not essential for the cleansing. To fulfil these requirements, the so—called basic or primary surfactants. which are the backbone of the cleansing products, are necessary.

Raw materials

2008-05-27T07:06:00.000-07:00

A wide range of chemical and natural materials is used in the formulation of cosmetic and toiletry preparations. It is outside the scope of this book to give a complete overview, therefore only those materials of primary importance will be stressed. This chapter deals with the basic raw materials for the production of hair-, skin- and oral-care products. It does not include special additives such as herbal extracts, nor raw materials, such as pigments, for decorative cosmetics. An overview of herbal extracts is given by Nowak.

The materials described are Iisted by application rather than by chemical classification, which is difficult to follow. This means that some products are described twice. for example the alkyl sulfates as basic surfactants and as oil-in-water emulsifiers, but makes it easier to provide an overview of a specific field and, allows the direct comparison of possible ingredients. For each material, the chemical pathway of production and special precautions regarding stability and compatibility with other ingredients are also described.

ASEAN Harmonized Cosmetics Regulatory Scheme

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ASEAN Harmonized Cosmetics Regulatory Scheme in a cosmetics field in Cambodia on 2 September 2003, consists of :

Schedule A : Mutual Recognition Arrangement
Schedule B : ASEAN Cosmetic Directive begin was be validated on 1 January 2008.

Change of paradigm :

Registration become notification
Cosmetic surveillance system focus that revolve in a market become Marketing Pasca Surveillance and Cosmetic Safety Evaluation.

Cosmetics category base of ASEAN Cosmetic Directive

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Cosmetics category base of ASEAN Cosmetic Directive :

1. Creams, emulsions, lotions, gels and oils for the skin.

2. Face masks

3. Tinted bases

4. Make-up powders

5. Toilet soaps, deodorant soaps, etc

6. Perfumes, eau de cologne

7. Bath or shower preparations

8. Depilatories

9. Deodorants and anti-perspirants

10. Hair care products :

· Hair tints

· Products for waving, straightening and fixing

· Setting products

· Cleansing products

· Conditioning

· Hairdressing

11. Shaving products

12. Make-up products

13. Lips products

14. Teeth and mouth products

15. Nail care products

16. External intimate hygiene products

17. Sunbathing products

18. Tanning without sun products

19. Skin-whitening products

20. Anti wrinkle products.

Functioning blood vessels

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Functioning blood vessels distributed nutrition to hair. the massage on the scalp during creambath had a function of spreading blood vessels so as nutrition flowed smoother and more that made hair would more healthy. if shampoo oneself chose shampoo that really good because if used shampoo that was perfunctory even will damage hair resulting from the chemical that was contained inside the shampoo. the viscosity and the foam in shampoo in fact did not have the effect cleaned or the beneficial effect that the other. conditioner and hair tonic also good to be used in the hair maintenance. hair better be avoided from heat of the sun because of making hair to be broken and red.

The sign of healthy hair

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The sign of healthy hair was :
- thick.
- was not easy tangled.
- was easy to be combed.
- fell did not exceed 50 sheets per the day.
- sparkling.

Surfactant

2008-05-26T07:44:00.000-07:00

The abbreviation surfactant from surface active agent (had a function of reducing the tension of the surface)/emulgator could be received from coconut oil sawit. the surfactant anionik could be used in cosmetics.

The SAMPLING METHOD

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The SAMPLING METHOD
1. probability (had the same opportunity).
a. simple random (had a basis batch, the colour/the lottery).
b. systematic Random (first random, furthermore multiple).
c. stratified Random (all cirri heterogeneous representative).
d. cluster Random (the community's group).
e. multistage Random (was in stages).

2. non probability.
a. purposive (the subject was determined).
b. incidental / quota (during certain/in accordance with the researcher's wish).

The CHARACTER of the SUPPLY of the CLEANER the FACE

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The CHARACTER of the SUPPLY of the CLEANER the FACE :
1. tolerance to skin.
2. foam cleaners must find it easy to be rinsed.
3. non foam cleaners did not cause the irritation.
4. stable.
5. did not contain the microbe pathogen.
6. did not contain the cosmetic material that was banned.

The CHARACTER of the SUPPLY of the MAINTENANCE of SKIN

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The CHARACTER of the SUPPLY of the MAINTENANCE of SKIN :
a. could maintain humidity, skin refinement and the value of acid and skin fat of the coat.
B. normalised the function of the sebaceous gland.
C. improved the change in the skin cell skinned.
D. normalised the function of sweat glands.
E. did not cause the growth of the microbe occupied that was abundant.
F. normalised the change in network morphology of skin.

The face powder base CHARACTER

2008-05-26T07:24:00.000-07:00

The face powder base CHARACTER :
1. mass and the colour were easy equitable.
2. touch images of skin with the refined feeling, soft, humid, was oily and was not close.
3. characteristics of the closing of appropriate skin.
4. did not change in the change in the condition.
5. tolerated high to skin.

The CHARACTER of eye MAKEUP

2008-05-26T07:22:00.000-07:00

The CHARACTER of eye MAKEUP :
a. the colour feature in accordance with the interests and the requirement.
B. tolerated good to skin.
C. free the microbe pathogen.
D. the durable power first-rate.
E. the good adhesiveness.
F. in accordance with the style mode that developed.

The hair coloring CHARACTER

2008-05-26T07:16:00.000-07:00

The hair coloring CHARACTER :
1. powerful sticky the colour.
2. tolerated good to skin.
3. did not contain the pigment that was banned.
4. of the level of pigment did not exceed the maximum limit.
5. had permission edar from The supervision corporate of medicine and food.
6. met the condition for the forum, the package, the label, signalling in accordance with the legislation.

The ShAMPOo CHARACTER

2008-05-26T07:13:00.000-07:00

The ShAMPOo CHARACTER :
a. the cleaner's appropriate power.
B. the foam was abundant and durable.
C. could protect hair for shampoo.
D. after shampoo, sparkled, and soft.
E. safe for hair and tolerance to skin.

The CHARACTER of LIPSTICK

2008-05-26T07:05:00.000-07:00

The CHARACTER of LIPSTICK :
1. aesthetic, beautiful and interesting shapes.
2. soft surfaces, the uniform and level.
3. stable in the storage and the use.
4. forms / the colour not deformation / hard.
5. free from all the defects.
6. did not issue oil in the change in the Temperature of the room.
7. feelings and the nice smell.
8. if was lubricated easy to melt.
9. tolerance for skin and the mucosa were very good.

The CHARACTER of cheek MAKEUP

2008-05-26T07:03:00.000-07:00

The CHARACTER of cheek MAKEUP :
a. was mixt with the powder foundation.
B. was easy to be levelled with brushed.
C. the change in the colour did not happen.
D. had the power was closed that was appropriate.
E. the soft, soft and slippery touch image.

The CHARACTER of face POWDER

2008-05-26T06:56:00.000-07:00

The CHARACTER of face POWDER : 
1. were easy to lubricated to skin.
2. were easy to be absorbed.
3. in the skin was felt soft, soft, humid.
4. were not gotten the sharp particle.
5. did not cause itchy.
6. met the condition of dirt the microbe in accordance with the legislation.
7. met the condition for the quality et cetera like that was appointed.

bath supply kind

2008-05-26T06:38:00.000-07:00

bath supply kind :

1. bath powder

a. powder

- talc

- mg karbonat

- zn stearat

- perfume

- color substance

- isopropyl miristate

- Borat acid

b. aerosol

- talc

- mg stearate

- isopropyl miristate

- perfume

- propelan-11

2. bath salt (giving color / aroma, water softener), as :

a. crystal

b. pelet

c. powder

- phosphate / borat

- chlorida

- perfume

- color substance

foam bath salt (Na carbonat, Citrate acid)

3. foam bath (Was filled up the bath, his foam refreshing, moderated water, cleaned the waste). as :

a. granule

b. crystal

c. capsule

d. solution

e. powder

contain :

a. emulgator

b. foamer

c. softener

d. color substance

e. perfume

4. bath oil (Gave the fresh and fragrant feeling, was emolien and non emolien). shape :

a. aerosol

b. granule

c. powder

d. solution

consist of :

a. isopropyl miristat

b. lanolin

c. mineral oil / vegetable

d. perfume

e. color substance

The function of the bath SUPPLY

2008-05-26T06:33:00.000-07:00

The function of the bath SUPPLY :
a. body cleaned
b. soften
c. gave the anestesi effect
d. gave the comfort feeling
e. the emolien effect
f. water absorbed
g. prevented scraped skin

The curly supply kind

2008-05-26T06:30:00.000-07:00

The curly supply kind took the form of
1. hot curly
2. cool curly
3. neutralize

The curly supply

2008-05-26T06:28:00.001-07:00

The curly supply take the form of alkaline damagingly bridge disulfide, like :
- anorganic sulfit
- tioglikolat

The hair curly supply

2008-05-26T06:25:00.000-07:00

The hair curly supply in principle was in a manner mechanics : hair was wetted, was rolled then was dried.

The temporary strengthener substance

2008-05-26T06:23:00.000-07:00

The temporary strengthener substance : 
1. tragacant
2. vaseline
3. paraffins et cetera

The hair straightens supply

2008-05-26T06:19:00.000-07:00

The hair straightens supply in the use to straighten loop hair / curly through mechanophysics (added the strengthener substance)

indirectly hair dye

2008-05-26T06:16:00.000-07:00

indirectly hair dye: 
1. dyes with the metal compounds
2. dyes with the oksidative substance

the direct hair dye

2008-05-26T06:13:00.000-07:00

the direct hair dye :
1. acids permanent pigments
2. acids acetate
3. dusts hena
4. dusts of the camomile flower

The supply kind of dye

2008-05-26T06:09:00.000-07:00

The supply kind of dye :
1. temporer dye
a. color shampoo
b. polish
2. semi permanent dye (penetration of the limited pigment happened)
3. permanent dye
a. adhered
b. penetration
c. was covered by oxidation

coloring

2008-05-26T06:06:00.000-07:00

coloring could come from the nature pigment / synthetic :
a. turmeric,
b. the camomile extract,
c. diamin,
d. hydrogen peroxide,
e. complex metal,
f. oksidative dye.

SUPPLY of hair MAKEUP

2008-05-26T06:01:00.000-07:00

The SUPPLY of hair MAKEUP was supply
that was used to organise hair, covered ; dye, straightens, curly, shampoo et cetera.

The cosmetics finished SUPPLY

2008-05-26T05:51:00.000-07:00

The cosmetics finished SUPPLY :
1. supplies of hair makeup
2. shampoo
3. The bath supply
4. The supply of baby Makeup
5. The supply of the sunscreen
6. antiperspirant and deodorant
7. The shave supply
8. The supply of nail makeup
9. The supply of face makeup

PARAMETER test of analysis cosmetics

2008-05-26T05:43:00.000-07:00

The PARAMETER test of analysis cosmetics:
1. physics test
 a. organoleptic

2. chemist test
 a. pH
 b. the level determination of nipagin
 c. the level determination of nipasol
 d. the level determination of the Borat acidity
 e. the level determination of the Salisilat acidity
 f. the level determination of hidroquinone
 g. the level determination of sulphur
 h. the level determination of triclosan
 i. the arsen identification
 j. the mercury identification
 k. the identification of the red Colour K3, K10, methanyl yellow

The STAGE of cosmetics analysis

2008-05-26T05:36:00.000-07:00

The STAGE of cosmetics analysis was :
1. material separations
a. the bearer material
b. the active substance
- protracted water
- not protracted water
2. identification
a. the active substance
b. the bearer substance
c. the other material / the preservative / the coloris
3.quantitative
a. the component that was permitted
b. the component that was not permitted

aim of cosmetics analysis

2008-05-26T05:33:00.000-07:00

The AIM of the analysis of cosmetics was :
1. knew the supply composition and the level of that was worn.
2. protected the community from the effect that was not wanted resulting from cosmetics substandard.
3. authentications of the truth towards the analysis data.

understanding of cosmetics analysis

2008-05-26T04:34:00.000-07:00

The UNDERSTANDING of the analysis of cosmetics is
the Action of knowing the cosmetic kind from the aspect of the material composition, good qualitatively or quantitative that filling the standard that was permitted.

Hydrocarbons

2008-05-26T04:32:00.000-07:00

Hydrocarbons

They are compounds composed exclusively of carbon and hydrogen. This group includes such compounds as methane through to highly complex molecular structures such as the polyaromatic hydrocarbons. Some of the straight-chain compounds are of concern due to their effect on the peripheral nerves whereas the more aromatic compounds of concern are carcinogens. The polyaromatic hydrocarbons are to be found in many of the fossil fuels but also are formed in the combustion of these fuels. They have been shown to be widely distributed in the environment.

Sulphur

2008-05-26T04:31:00.002-07:00

Sulphur

It is encountered most frequently as one of its oxides. Sulphur dioxide or the sulphate as sulphuric acid are produced in large quantities in the combustion of fossil fuels. Again, its primary effect is on the respiratory tract.

Nitrogen

2008-05-26T04:31:00.001-07:00

Nitrogen

Nitrogen compounds, primarily the oxides, arise principally from high-temperature combustion in the form of nitrous oxide and nitrogen dioxide. These gases, demonstrated to cause respiratory problems, are of particular concern in closed spaces. Another oxide of nitrogen, nitrate, may arise from fertilizer, sewage waste, and to a lesser extent, conversion of nitrogen dioxide to nitrate by atmospheric electrical activity. Nitrate most frequently appears in water though it may, when occurring in large amounts in soils, be present in certain plants. Nitrate, even at moderate levels, is a particular hazard to the infant.

Mercury

2008-05-26T04:30:00.002-07:00

Mercury

Held fascination for the ancient alchemist but its worth was found in economic enterprises over the years. It has been used in medicine, agriculture and industry for a wide variety of purposes. Its use as a catalyst in the plastic industry as well as numerous incidents of poisoning have served to focus on the hazard it represents in the physical environment. A finding of particular interest in the Minimata poisoning incident in Japan was that this metal, like some others, may be methylated in the environment to pose an even greater hazard through bioaccumulation and intrinsic toxicity.

Arsenic

2008-05-26T04:30:00.001-07:00

Arsenic

It is to be found in geological formations from whence it may be leached into water supplies. It also finds its way into the environment through activities such as mining, smelting, and to a lesser extent in recent years, through the use of inorganic arsenic. It is both toxic and carcinogenic.

Asbestos

2008-05-26T04:29:00.001-07:00

Asbestos

Asbestos fibres escape into the environment during mining and manufacturing processes as well as in construction. It may be found in water and air to which humans will be exposed. It has also been demonstrated that there may be a familial exposure. Asbestos is a source of concern because of its production of neoplasms and particularly mesothelioma.

HERBAL for MEDICINAL

2008-05-26T04:26:00.000-07:00

HERBAL FOR MEDICINAL

Aloe barbadensis mill

It grows mainly in the dry regions of Africa, Asia, Europe and America. Aloe latex or juice, usually in its dried form, is used as a potent laxative. Aloe gel is used both externally and internally for its wound-healing properties and as a general tonic or cure-all.

High Pressure Liquid CHROMATOGRAPHY

2008-05-24T19:55:00.000-07:00

High Pressure Liquid CHROMATOGRAPHY or HPLC.
was the separation method where the still phase was placed in the column.
The tip of the other column was connected in the exerting pressure eluen
temperature.
The implement:
- Chromatography consisted of the system to channel the phase gram.
- the Place to put the substance that will be checked.
- the chromatography Column.
- the detection system  and the registration

The procedure:
- the Phase gram was pumped with the pressure from one or more reservoir in the column with the rate of the constant current.
- the Composition and the rate of the current from phasegram was stated in chromatography.
- the Solution to the test was put in the door to the injection (in being wrong one from three roads) :
a.Injection the valve was with the certain volume put used the hole injector.
B.Injection the varying volume valve was put used the injection valve.
C.Injection on coulomb where the varying volume was put used the injection implement through the partition.